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A.  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


WITH  AN 


Inalgsts  of  llt^  Mnfenc^. 


BY  JOHN  S.  HART,  LL.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  AND  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  IN 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  NEW  JERSEY,  LATE  PRINCIPAL  OF  THE  NEW  JERSEY 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  AUTHOR  OF  A  SERIES  OF  TEXT-BOOKS 

ON  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE,  ETC.,  ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

ELDREDGE  &  BROTHER, 

17  North  Seventh  Street. 

187S. 


\ 


A  SERIES  OF  TEXT- BOOKS 

ON  THE 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

By  JOHN  S.   HART,  LL.D. 

Language -Lessons  for  Beginners. 
English  Grammar  and  Analysis. 
First  Lessons  in  Composition. 
Composition  and  Rhetoric. 
A  Short  Course  in  Literature. 
A  Manual  of  English  Literature. 
A  Manual  of  American  Literature. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

ELDREDGE   &   BROTHER, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


-^^ 


^ 


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&    SON,  *^ 


J.    FAGAN 
'<^.  ,    ELECTROTYPERS,    PHILAD'A. 


j^iMJUTi^U 


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CAXTON  PRESS  OF  8HKRMAN  &  CO. 


OBft 


Preface. 


3>»iC 


rpHE  author,  having  in  great  measure  rewritten  his  English 
-*-  Grammar,  presents  it  once  more  to  the  consideration  of  the 
teachers  of  the  country.  The  work,  as  now  offered,  is  the  result  of 
long  experience  in  the  class-room,  and  of  no  little  reading  and  study. 
The  English  language  and  its  literature  have  been  for  many  years 
the  main  subjects  of  the  author's  inquiry,  and  he  has  endeavored  in 
this  volume  to  give  the  results  of  his  observations  in  the  form  which 
his  experience  as  a  teacher  has  convinced  him  to  be  the  best  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  the  learner. 

The  points  aimed  at  have  been  twofold : 

First,  to  give  some  knowledge  of  grammar  in  general.  This  is  the 
more  necessary,  as  most  of  those  who  study  English  grammar  study 
no  other  language,  and  have  no  other  means  of  studying  the  laws  of 
language  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought. 

Secondly,  to  set  forth  the  forms  and  laws  peculiar  to  the  English 
language.  The  English  has  indeed  been  called,  somewhat  irrever- 
ently, "  the  grammarless  tongue."  Its  inflections,  it  must  be  confessed, 
are  meagre,  as  compared  with  those  of  the  Latin  and  Greek.  Such  is 
the  condition  of  almost  every  modern  tongue.  Yet  our  English  has 
its  idioms,  as  every  foreigner  learns  to  his  cost,  and  is  not  entirely 
without  its  inflections.  An  accurate  knowledge  of  these  idioms  and 
inflections  is  of  incalculable  value  to  every  one  who  would  be  at  home 
in  the  use  of  the  language. 

There  is  an  opinion  widely  prevalent  among  the  teachers  of  classical 


811 


IV  PREFACE. 

schools,  that  boys  fitting  for  college  have  no  need  to  study  English 
grammar.  From  that  opinion  the  author  begs  leave  respectfully,  but 
most  earnestly,  to  dissent.  If  he  mistakes  not,  a  growing  majority  of 
those  who  are  called  upon  to  examine  candidates  for  admission  to 
college  will  bear  him  out  in  his  position.  The  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  gives  indeed  a  knowledge  of  the  grammar  of  those  languages, 
and  some  knowledge  of  grammar  in  general,  but  it  does  not  give  a 
knowledge  of  English  grammar.  Does  Latin  grammar  teach  a  boy 
our  common  rules  for  Spelling,  which  are  a  guide  to  the  correct 
writing  of  not  less  than  twenty  thousand  English  words  ?  Does  it 
teach  him  the  origin,  form,  and  uses  of  the  English  Possessive? 
Does  it,  to  take  one  instance  out  of  hundreds  that  might  be  named, 
teach  him  the  syntax  of  the  phrase  "For  David  thy  father's  sake"? 
Does  it  teach  him  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  English  Plural  ? 
—  the  peculiarities  of  the  Past  Participle  Active?  Does  it  not  lead 
him  into  grave  mistakes  in  regard  to  the  forms  and  uses  of  the  Eng- 
lish verb  ? 

A  word  as  to  the  method  pursued.  The  author  has  endeavored  to 
bear  in  mind  that  he  was  writing,  not  a  treatise  for  the  learned,  but 
a  text-book  for  learners.     For  such  a  book, — 

The  first  and  most  imperative  demand  is  clearness,  —  clearness 
of  arrangement,  and  clearness  of  expression. 

Next  and  hardly  less  imperative  is  the  demand  that  the  more  and 
the  less  important  should  be  carefully  discriminated,  and  the  difier- 
ence  plainly  set  forth  to  the  eye. 

A  third  imperative  demand  is  that  the  rules,  definitions,  and  other 
matter  to  be  committed  to  memory,  should  be  expressed  with  the 
utmost  possible  conciseness. 

A  fourth  requisite  is  that  every  rule  and  definition  should  be  sup- 
ported and  illustrated  by  a  goo'dly  array  of  apt  practical  examples. 
These  are  as  necessary  in  teaching  grammar  as  sums  are  in  teaching 
arithmetic. 

How  far  these  things  have  been  secured  is  for  the  reader  to  judge. 

J.  S.  H. 

Princeton,  i^T.  J.,  June  26,  1874. 


PAGE 

Prsface, iii 

Introduction,    ..........         -9 


Part  L 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters  generally, .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .11 

Vowels,  ...........  13 

Consonants,           ..........  14 

Words  and  Syllables, 15 

Rules  for  Spelling,            .........  IG 


Part  II. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Classification  of  Words, 


21 


I.  Articles. 


Origin  and  Use  of  the  Articles, 
1* 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


II.  Nouns. 

PAGE 

Classification  of  Nouns,         .  .  .  .  .  .  ...         25 

Attributes  of  Nouns,        .........    26 

1.  Gender,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .27 

2.  Number,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .30 

3.  Person,        .........         .35 

4.  Case,     ..........    3G 


III.  Adjectives. 


True  Character  of  Adjectives, 
Comparison  of  Adjectives, 


IV.  Pronouns. 


True  Character  of  Pronouns, 

1.  Personal  Pronouns, 

2.  Kelative  Pronouns, 

3.  Adjective  Pronouns, 


V.  Verbs 


True  Character  of  the  Verb, 
I.  Attributes  of  Verbs,    . 

1.  Voice, 

2.  Mood,    .  .  .  . 

3.  Tense, 

4.  Participles, 

5.  Number  and  Person, 
IL  Classes  of  Verbs, 

1.  Transitive  and  Intransitive, 

2.  Regular  and  Irregular, 

3.  Impersonal, 

4.  Defective, 

5.  Auxiliary,  . 
III.  Conjugation  of  Verbs, 

The  Verb  To  he, 
The  Verb  To  love. 


Comparison  of  Adverbs, 
Classes  of  Adverbs, 


VI.  Adverbs. 


87 


VII.  Conjunctions. 

Character  and  Uses  of  Conjunctions,   . 


VIII.  Prepositions. 

Character  and  Uses  of  Prepositions, 


91 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

IX.  Interjections. 

PAOB 

\^orcl8  used  as  different  Parts  of  Speech,        .  .  .  .  .  .94 


Derivation  of  Words. 

1.  Prefixes  of  Saxon  Origin, 96 

2.  Prefixes  of  Latin  Origin, .97 

3.  Prefixes  of  Greek  Origin, .98 

4.  Affixes, 99 


Part  III 


SENTENCES. 
I.  Syntax. 

Order  of  the  Rules  in  Syntax, ........    102 

1,  The  Nominative,  .......         103 

2.  The  Verb, 106 

8.  The  Objective  Case  and  the  Verb,      .....         112 
4.  The  Objective  Case  and  the  Preposition,  .  .  .  .115 

6.  The  Possessive  Case,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .120 

6.  Apposition,    .........    124 

7.  Case  after  the  Verb  Tobe,        .  .  .  .  .  .         126 

8.  The  Pronoun,  ........    128 

9.  The  Article,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .133 

10.  The  Adjective,          .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .136 

11.  The  Adjective  Pronoun,          ......  139 

12.  The  Participle,         ........    141 

13.  The  Adverb,        ........  144 

14.  The  Infinitive  Mood,          .           .           .           .           .           .  .147 

15.  The  Conjunction,           .......  149 

16.  The  Interjection,     .           .           .           .           ,           .           .  .153 
Miscellaneous  Exercises,      ........  153 

II.  Analysis. 

L  Parts  of  a  Sentence,      ........    161 

I.  The  Subject,  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .162 

1.  Simple  Subjects,       ........    163 

2.  Complex  Subjects,  .......         163 

8.  Compound  Subjects,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .167 


VUl 


CONTENTS. 


II.  The  Predicate,    . 

1.  Simple  Predicates,  . 

2.  Complex  Predicates, 

3.  Compound  Predicates, 

II.  Kinds  op  Sentences,  . 

I.  Simple  Sentences, 
II.  Complex  Sentences, 

III.  Compound  Sentences, 

III.  Explanation  of  Terms, 

I.  Phrases, . 
II.  Clauses, 
III.  Members, 
General  Exercises  in  Analysis, 


PAGE 

168 
.    168 


.     172 

173 
.    174 

174 
.     175 

175 
.     175 

176 
.    176 

177 


PUNCTUATION, 


I.  Comma, 
II.  Semicolon, 

III.  Colon,    . 

IV.  Period, 

V.  Interrogation  Point, 
VI.  Exclamation  Point, 
VII.  Dash,     . 
VIII.  Parenthesis, 
IX.  Brackets, 
X.  Quotation, 
XI.  Capitals, 


180 
190 

194 
196 
199 
200 
202 
207 


213 


FIGURES. 

I.  Figures  of  Orthography  and  Etymology, 
II.  Figures  of  Syntax, 
ni.  Figures  of  Khetoric,       .... 


218 
218 
219 


VERSIFICATION. 


I.  Verses, 
II.  Feet.  . 


221 
22). 


III.  Kinds  of  Verse, 


3>*KC 


Selections  for  Analysis  and  Parsing, 


224 


English  Grammar. 


Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  Language.* 

Explanations. —  We  say  that  Arithmetic  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
numbers,  Botany  is  the  science  which  treats  of  plants,  Astronomy  is  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  stars.  So,  Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats 
of  language.* 

Knowledge  on  any  subject,  arranged  in  some  regular  order,  is  called  a 
Science. 

The  words  which  a  people  use  in  speaking  or  writing  are  called  a  Lan- 
guage. 

The  object  of  studying  Grammar  is  to  be  able  to  understand,  speak,  and 
write  a  language  correctly. 

Most  of  the  terms  used  in  Grammar  are  derived  from  Greek  and  Latin 
words.  The  meaning  and  derivation  of  these  terms  will  be  given  in  the 
notes.  The  teacher  will  observe,  however,  that  in  many  instances  the  terms 
are  now  used  in  a  sense  considerably  different  from  the  original  meaning. 
Still,  the  connection  between  the  present  use  of  the  word  and  its  original 
meaning  can  generally  be  traced,  and  the  teacher  should  always  so  trace  it, 
where  practicable. 

Note.  —  Grammar  takes  its  name  from  the  Greek  word  gramma 
{ypdfi/xa),  a  letter,  or  a  writing,  because  it  treats  particularly  of 
written  language.* 

Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts;  namely,  Orthog- 
RA.PHY,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

*  See  Note  to  Teachers  on  page  10. 


10  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Orthography  treats  of  Letters,  Etymology  of  Words, 
Syntax  of  Sentences,  and  Prosody  of  Versification. 

Note. — This  fourfold  division  has  been  retained  here  in  deference  to  long 
established  custom.  In  the  present  treatise,  however,  certain  changes  have 
been  adopted. 

There  is  some  doubt  whether  Part  first,  Orthography,  does  not  belong  to 
the  Spelling-Book  rather  than  to  the  Grammar.  But  there  are  so  many- 
things  in  Orthography  which  are  not  taught  in  the  Spelling-Books,  which 
at  least  the  scholar  does  not  ordinarily  learn  in  using  them,  and  which  he 
needs  to  know  before  entering  upon  the  study  of  Grammar,  that  it  seems 
hardly  safe  to  omit  this   study  altogether  from  a  text-book  on  the  subject. 

Part  third.  Sentences,  is  treated  under  two  distinct  heads,  Syntax  and 
Analysis. 

Part  fourth.  Prosody,  belongs  so  manifestly  to  Rhetoric,  that  the  treatment 
of  it  is  comparatively  brief,  the  student  who  desires  more  extended  informa- 
tion being  referred  to  the  author's  work  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric, 
where  the  subject  is  treated  with  some  degree  of  fulness. 


>>e^.c 


NOTE  TO  TEACHERS. 

The  matter  in  this  book  is  divided  into  three  kinds,  indicated  by  three 
varieties  of  type,  and  it  is  important  that  the  object  of  this  arrangement 
should  be  clearly  understood. 

1.  It  is  intended  that  the  scholar  should  first  go  through  the  book,  learn- 
ing the  matter  in  the  largest  type  only,  with  the  declensions  and  conjuga- 
tions, and  with  such  oral  explanations  from  the  teacher,  and  such  portion 
of  the  Exercises,  as  may  be  found  expedient. 

2.  Having  gone  over  the  whole  ground  once,  or  perhaps  twice,  in  this 
way,  the  scholar  will  be  prepared  to  take  up  profitably  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  Exercises,  and  the  matter  in  the  intermediate  type.  This  in- 
termediate matter,  however,  is  not  intended  to  be  committed  to  memory 
verbatim,  like  the  rules  and  definitions  in  the  largest  type. 

3.  The  matter  in  the  smallest  type  is  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  and 
defending  the  positions  taken  in  the  text.  It  is  addressed  to  the  teacher 
rather  than  to  the  scholar.  The  more  advanced  scholars  might  be  encour- 
aged—  if  intelligent  and  studious  they  will  probably  be  tempted  —  of  their 
own  accord,  and  at  the  proper  time,  to  read  this  fine  print  matter.  But  it 
should  be  rarely,  if  ever,  made  the  subject  of  examination,  and  it  should  in 
no  case  be  required  to  be  committed  to  memory. 


First   Part. 


yi^c 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The  first  part  of  Grammar  is  called  Orthography.* 
Orthography  treats  of  Letters. 

Note. — Orthography  takes  its  name  from  the  Greek  words 
orthos  [bpddc),  correct,  and  graphe  (ypa^r/),  writing,  because  it 
teaches  the  correct  mode  of  writing. 

Orthography  treats  first  of  letters  taken  separately,  and 
then  of  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  syllables  and 
words,  which  is  called  spelling. 

The  treatment  of  the  Points  and  of  the  other  characters  used  in  writing, 
embracing  the  rules  of  Punctuation,  belongs  properly  to  Orthography.  But 
the  most  important  of  these  rules  cannot  be  understood  by  the  pupil  until 
he  is  familiar  with  the  principles  of  Grammar.  This  topic,  therefore,  is 
treated  at  the  close  of  the  book. 

I.     LETTERS  TAKEN  SEPARATELY. 

Letters  are  written  characters  or  signs  used  to  repre- 
sent certain  sounds  of  the  human  voice. 

A  letter  that  is  not  sounded  in  speaking  is  called  a  ailent  letter. 
♦See  Note  to  Teachers  on  page  10. 


12  ENGLISH    GllAMMAR. 

The  letters  of  any  Language  are  called  its  Alphabet. 

jfote.  —  Alphabet  takes  its  name  from  alplm  (aAcpa)  and  beta 
(fiijTa),  the  names  of  the  first  two  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet, 
corresponding  to  our  a  and  b.  Thus  we  often  call  our  alphabet 
the  ab  c. 

The  English  Alphabet  contains  twenty-six  letters. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 
Consonants  are  subdivided  into  Mutes  and  Semi-vowels. 

A  Vowel  may  be  fully  sounded  by  itself. 

A  Consonant  cannot  be  fully  sounded  unless  in  con- 
nection with  a  vowel. 

Note.  —  Vowel  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  vocalis,  vocal, 
because  it  may  be  sounded  freely  and  fully  by  itself,  without  the 
aid  of  any  other  letters.  Consonant  takes  its  name  from  the 
Latin  words  con,  with,  and  sonans,  sounding,  because  sounding 
with  another  letter,  that  is,  not  capable  of  being  sounded  per- 
fectly by  itself.* 

This  division  of  the  letters  into  Vowels,  Semi-vowels,  and  Consonants 
began  with  Aristotle,  b.  c.  330,  and  has  been  accepted  by  nearly  all  gram- 
marians until  very  recent  times.  The  bewildering  nomenclature  of  Tonics, 
Subtonics,  Atonies,  Obstructed,  Unobstructed,  Simple,  Serial,  Explodent, 
Continuant,  etc,  which  has  grown  up  of  late  years,  has  originated  appar- 
ently in  not  distinguishing  sufficiently  between  the  letters  of  a  language  and 
its  elementary  sounds.  It  is  the  business  of  the  Elocutionist  to  analyze  and 
classify  the  sounds  of  a  language;  that  of  the  Grammarian  to  classify  and 
name  its  letters ;  and  no  division  or  nomenclature  invented  since  the  days 
of  Aristotle  has  greater  practical  convenience,  or  better  expresses  the  true 
functions  of  the  letters  themselves,  in  their  relations  to  Grammar,  than  that 
suggested  by  the  Greek  philosopher  twenty-two  centuries  ago. 

This  classification,  as  conceived  by  him,  has  its  foundation  in  the  action 
of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering  the  letters. 

When  the  mouth,  throat,  and  other  organs  of  speech  are  opened  in  a  par- 
ticular position,  and  the  voice  is  allowed  to  flow  out  in  a  continuous 
and  uniform  current,  without  any  change  in  the  position  of  the  organs, 
the  sound  so  formed  is  called  a  Vowel.  In  this  manner  we  may  prolong 
the  sound  of  a  indefinitely,  or  until  out  of  breath.  If,  while  the  voice  is 
thus  issuing  from  the  mouth,  the  current  of  sound  is  interrupted  by  a  par- 
tial compression  of  the  organs,  the  sound  becomes  a  Semi-voweL     Thus, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  13 

while  prolonging  the  sound  of  a,  if  we  press  the  tongue  upon  the  upper  part 
of  the  mouth,  but  allow  the  voice  still  to  proceed,  the  sound  becomes  that 
of  the  letter  /,  as  in  the  word  ale.  If  this  compression  becomes  so  great  as 
actually  to  close  the  organs,  the  sound  ceases,  and  in  the  very  act  of  ceasing 
gives  rise  to  a  Mute.  Thus,  in  the  case  just  mentioned,  if  instead  of  press- 
ing the  tongue  upon  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  we  press  it  against  the  teeth, 
and  entirely  stop  the  passage  of  the  voice,  the  actual  termination  of  the 
sound  is  that  indicated  by  the  letter  t,  as  in  the  word  ate.  This  process 
may  be  reversed.  The  letter  t  may  be  formed  first  and  the  vowel  follow  it, 
as  in  pronouncing  the  word  tale.  In  this  case  the  mute  is  the  very  begin- 
ning of  sound. 

A  Mute,  then,  is  the  mere  commencement  or  termination  of  the  sound, 
on  opening  or  closing  the  organs ;  a  Semi-VOWel  is  a  partial  interruption 
or  modification  of  the  sound,  caused  by  changing  the  position  of  the  organs 
during  utterance;  and  a  Vowel  is  the  very  sound  itself  prolonged  without 
change. 

Vowels. 

The  Vowels  are  a,  e,  z,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 
All  the  other  letters  are  Consonants. 

Note.  —  \V  and  y  are  consonants  when  they  precede  a  vowel 
sound  in  the  same  syllable ;  but  are  vowels  in  all  other  places. 

A  Diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound. 

A  Proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels  are  sounded.  The 
Proper  diphthongs  are  two,  namely,  oi  and  on,  as  in  loiu,  loud. 

An  Improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one  vowel  is  sounded ;  as, 
oa  in  boat.  The  Improper  diphthongs  are  numerous,  and  need  not  be  re- 
peated. Strictly  speaking,  they  are  not  diphthongs,  but  merely  single  vowel 
sounds  preceded  or  followed  by  other  vowels  that  are  not  sounded. 

A  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one 
sound;  as,  ieu  in  adieu. 

The  triphthongs  are  three  in  number,  ean,  ieu,  iew ;  as  in  beauty,  lieu- 
tenant, review.  Like  the  improper  diphthongs,  they  contain  only  one  vowel 
sound. 

Note  1.  —  Z7  after  q  is  never  counted  as  part  of  a  diphthong  or 
of  a  triphthong. 
2 


14  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note  2.  —  Diphthong  and  triphthong  take  their  names  from 
the  Greek  words  dis  [dig]  and  iris  {rplg),  two  and  three,  and 
phthongos  {<t>0oyy6g),  sound. 


Consonants. 

The  Consonants  are  divided  into  Mutes  and  Semi- 
vowels. 

The  Mutes  and  Semi- vowels  may  be  distinguished  both  by  the  name  and 
by  the  sound. 

In  naming  the  mutes,  the  accompanying  vowel  generally  follows  ;  as,  pe, 
he;  in  naming  the  semi-vowels,  the  accompanying  vowel  precedes;  as, 
ef,  el. 

In  sounding  the  mutes,  the  voice  is  stopped  short,  as  in  ap  ^  in  sounding 
the  semi-vowels,  the  voice  may  be  prolonged,  as  in  al. 

The  mutes  are  p,  b,  t,  d,  h,  q,  and  c  and  g  hard. 
The  semi-vowels  are  I,  m,  n,r;  c  and  g  soft,  and^/  w  and  y 
when  they  are  not  vowels  ;  h;  /and  v ;  s  and  2/  x. 
Four  of  the  semi- vowels,  /,  m,  n,  r,  are  also  called  Liquids. 

The  consonants  are  sometimes  divided  according  to  the  part  of  the  vocal 
organs  by  which  they  are  formed.  The  principal  divisions  of  this  sort  are 
labials,  dentals,  palatah,  gutturals,  nasals,  and  Unguals. 

These  terms  are  derived  from  the  Latin  :  labium,  lip  ;  den8,  dent  is,  tooth; 
palatum,  palate ;  guitur,  throat ;  nasus,  nose ;  lingua,  tongue. 

Labials  are  formed  chiefly  by  the  lips,  Dentals  by  the  teeth.  Palatals  by 
the  palate,  Gutturals  by  the  throat,  Nasals  by  the  nose,  and  Linguals  by  the 
tougiie. 

The  Labials  are  p,  h,f,  v  ;  the  Dentals  t,  d,  c  soft,  »,  z  ;  the  Palatals  g  soft 
and/y  the  Gutturals  k,  q,  and  c  and  g  hard;  the  Nasals  m  and  n ;  and 
the  Linguals  I  and  r. 

Exercises. — In  the  following  words,  take  each  letter,  as  it 
stands,  and  say  whether  it  is  a  vowel  or  a  consonant;  in  enumer- 
ating the  vowels,  tell  which  of  them,  if  any,  form  diphthongs 
or  triphthongs;  in  enumerating  the  consonants,  say  of  each 
whether  it  is  a  mute  or  a  semi-vowel: — multitudinous,  fre- 
quently, upheaval,  influential,  algebra,  robbery,  lieutenant,  gro- 
tesque, reviewing,  ocean,  herbaceous,  knowledge,  slaughter, 
employer,  thievish,  joyfully. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  15 

Note.  —  For  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  the  learner  is  referred  to 
the  Speiling-Book  and  the  Dictionary. 

II.    WORDS  AND  SYLLABLES. 

A  Word  is  a  collection  of  letters  used  together  to  rep- 
resent some  idea. 

A  few  words  consist  of  only  one  letter  each. 

A  Syllable  is  so  much  of  a  word  as  can  be  pronounced 
by  one  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  con  in  contain. 

Spelling  is  putting  letters  together  correctly  so  as  to 
form  syllables  and  words. 

Note.  •—  Syllable  takes  its  name  from  the  Greek  words  syl  {cvl), 
together,  and  labein  (Aa/3eZv),  to  take,  because  the  letters  which 
form  a  syllable  are  taken  together,  in  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 

What  is  meant  by  syllable  and  by  impulse  of  the  voice  can  be  best  ex- 
plained orally,  that  is,  by  the  teacher's  actually  sounding  syllables  succes- 
sively in  the  scholar's  hearing,  and  calling  his  attention  to  the  manner  ia 
which  the  sound  comes  from  the  mouth.  When  one  syllable  is  ended  and 
another  is  about  to  begin,  the  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat  used  for 
making  the  sound,  take  a  new  position,  and  a  sort  of  jerk,  or  additional 
force,  is  given  to  the  voice.  This  additional  force,  is  what  is  meant  by 
impulse. 

Note.  — There  are  as  many  syllables  in  a  word  as  there  are 
vowels  and  diphthongs,  not  counting  those  which  are  silent  or 
unsounded. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable ;  of 
two,  a  Dissyllable ;  of  three,  a  Trisyllable ;  of  more 
than  three,  a  Polysyllable. 

Example. — Truth  is  a  monosyllable ;  truth-ful,  a  dissyllable; 
truth -ful-ness,  a  trisyllable;  un-truth-flil-neHS,  a  polysyllable. 

Note. —Monosyllable,  dissyllable,  trisyllable,  and  polysyll.'i- 
ble,  take  their  names  from  the  Greek  words  monos  {fidvnc),  one, 
dis  {dig),  two,  iris  {rpig),  three,  and  poly  [ttoIv),  many,  combined 
with  syllable. 


16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  to  which  class  each  of  the  following  words 
belongs :  nation,  uprightness,  incomprehensible,  authority,  fre- 
quent, plague,  opportunity,  horse,  element,  elementary,  robber, 
vowel,  consonant. 

JBTote.  —  The  teacher  may  add  other  examples  at  will. 

Rules  for  Spelling. 

RULE  I.— Y  final. 

Part  I.  —  I^  final,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  is  changed 
into  i  on  taking  a  suffix ;  as,  fano-yy  fano-i-fuly  (not 
fanio-y-ful) 

A  suffix  is  something  added  to  the  end  of  a  word. 

Exception  1.  —  Before  ous,  y  sometimes  becomes  e  ;  as,  heaut-y, 
beaut-e-ous. 

Exception  2.  —  Before  ing,  y  is  not  changed ;  as,  tarr-y,  tarr- 
y-ing. 

Part  2.  —  Y  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  not  changed 
on  taking  a  suffix ;  as,  play^  play-er. 

Exceptions.  —  Ddy,  which  makes  daily ;  lay,  'pay,  and  say, 
which  make  laid,  paid,  and  mid,  together  with  various  other 
derivatives  and  compounds,  as  mislaid,  unpaid,  unsaid,  etc. 

Exercises.  —  Spell  the  words  formed  by  adding  ful  to  mercy, 
plenty,  bounty,  duty,  pity  ;  by  adding  es  and  ing  to  cry,  pry,  try, 
apply,  deny,  rely ;  by  adding  er  and  est  to  merry,  sorry,  saucy, 
holy. 

Correct  any  of  the  following  which  need  correction,  and  give 
the  Eule  for  each  change :  like-ly-hood,  handy-craft,  quarry-ed, 
journey-ed,  beauty-ful,  glory-ous,  jnty-ous,  pity-ful,  melody-es, 
Tnelody-ous,  gay-ety,  gay-ly,witty-ly,witty-er,  betray-er,journey-ing. 

Original  Exercises.  —  In  addition  to  the  examples  in  the 
book,  both  in  the  rules  and  the  exercises,  bring,  written,  of  your 
own  invention,  the  following :  ' 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  17 

Ten  examples  of  y  final  changed  to  i,  under  Part  1  of  the 
Rule. 

Five  examples  of  y  final  becoming  e,  under  Exception  1. 

Five  examples  of  y  final  not  changed,  under  Exception  2. 

Ten  examples  of  y  final  not  changed,  under  Part  2  of  the 
Rule. 

RULE  II.— E  final,  silent. 

Part  I. —  ^filial,  silent,  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  vowel,  is  dropped ;  as,  care,  car-ing. 

Exception  1.  —  le,  on  taking  the  suffix  ing,  is  changed  into  y  ; 
as,  die,  dy-ing. 

Exception  2.  —  Dye  (to  color),  hoe,  and  shoe  do  not  drop  e  on 
taking  the  suffix  ing;  as,  dye-ing,  hoe-ing,  shoe-ing. 

Exception  3. — Singe,  swinge,  and  tinge  do  not  drop  e  on  taking 
the  suffix  ing.  This  is  to  retain  the  soft  sound  of  the  g,  and  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  singy  swing, 
ting.  Thus:  sing-ing,  siving-ing,  ting-ing /  singe-ing^  awinge-ing, 
tinge-ing. 

Exception  4.— Cfe  and  ge,  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a,  0,  or  u,  do  not  drop  the  e.  This  is  to  retain  the  soft  sound  of 
the  c  and  g.  Thus :  service-able,  not  servic-able;  change-ahle,  not 
chang-able. 

Part  2. —  E  final,  silent,  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  consonant,  is  not  dropped ;  as,  carey  care-ful. 

Exceptions. — Judgment,  lodgment,  abridgment,  acknowledgment, 
argument ;  wisdom,  nursling  ;  duly,  truly,  awful,  with  some  corres- 
ponding derivatives  of  due  and  true,  such  as  duty^  dutiful,  truth^ 
truthful,  etc. 

Exercises.  —  Spell  the  words  formed  by  adding  ing  to  bite, 
force,  revive  ;  by  adding  able  to  admire,  adore,  deplore. 

Form  the  following  compounds,  and  give  the  rule  for  each 
change :  ripe-en,  ripe-ness,  smoke-ing,  lie-ing,  sphere-ical,  dispute- 
ant,  tire-some,  tie-ing,  tie-ed,  pave-ment,  pave-ing,  serve-ice-able, 
defense-ible,  defense-less,  cure-able,  marriage-able,  trace-ing,  trace- 
able, fame-ous,  courage-ous,  re-pulse-ive-ness. 
2*  B 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Original  Exercises.  —  Bring,  written,  of  your  own  inven- 
tion :  — 

Ten  examples  of  e  final  dropped,  under  Part  1  of  the  Rule. 

Five  examples  of  %e  changed  to  y,  under  Exception  1. 

Ten  examples  of  e  final  not  dropped,  under  Part  2  of  the  Rule. 

RULE  III.— Words  ending  \r\ll. 

Words  ending  in  II  drop  one  I  on  taking  a  suffix  be- 
ginning with  a  consonant ;  as,  Jull^  ful-ness  ;  also  some- 
times on  taking  a  prefix;  as,  fully  hand-ful;  tilly  un-til. 

Note.  —  Words  ending  in  any  other  double  letter  are  spelt  in 
composition  in  the  same  manner  as  when  alone ;  as,  stiff,  stiff-ness. 

Exercises.  —  Spell  the  words  formed  by  adding  to  all  the  words 
though,  together ;  by  combining  with  and  all;  by  combining  arm 
a.ndfull. 

Form  the  following  compounds,  and  give  the  Rule  for  each 
change :  full-Jill,  tall-er,  buzz-ing,  all-ways,  well-come,  use-full,  all- 
most,  puff-ing. 

Original  Exercises.  —  Bring,  written,  of  your  own  inven- 
tion :  — 

Ten  examples  of  I  dropped  on  taking  a  suffix. 

Ten  examples  of  I  dropped  on' taking  a  prefix. 

RULE  IV.— Doubling  the  final  consonant. 

In  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  a  final  conso- 
nant, if  single,  and  if  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  is 
doubled  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as, 
permity  permit-t-ing. 

Monosyllables,  being  always  accented,  come  of  course  under  this  rule. 

Note.  —  Here  are  four  conditions :  1.  The  last  syllable  must 
have  the  accent ;  2.  It  must  end  in  a  single  consonant ;  3.  This 
single  consonant  must  be  preceded  by  a  single  vowel ;  4.  The 
suffix  must  begin  with  a  vowel. 

Examples.  —  In  offer-iug,  the  first  condition  is  wanting ;  in 
torment-ing,  the  second  condition ;  in  appeal-ing,  the  third ;  in 
at;er-ment,  the  fourth. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  19 

There  are  more  than  sixty  words  about  which  there  is  a  disagreement 
among  lexicographers  as  to  whether  the  final  consonant  should  or  should 
not  be  doubled.  These  words,  ending  chiefly  in  /,  conform  to  the  other 
three  conditions  of  the  rule,  but  are  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable. 
Webster  and  those  who  accept  him  as  an  authority  do  not  double  the  final 
consonant  in  these  cases.  Worcester  and  his  English  predecessors, 
Richardson,  Walker,  Johnson  and  others,  do  double  the  final  consonant. 
Worcester  writes  travel,  travelling,  traveller ;  worship,  worshipping,  wor- 
shipper. Webster  writes  travel,  traveling,  traveler;  worship,  worshiping, 
worshiper. 

The  words  in  question  are  the  following :  worship,  kidnap,  compromit,  bias  ; 
carburet,  sulphuret  and  some  other  like  words  in  chemistry ;  and  the  following 
fifty-three  in  I,  namely,  apparel,  bevel,  bowel,  embowel,  cancel,  carol,  cavil, 
channel,  chisel,  counsel,  cudgel,  dishevel,  drivel,  duel,  enamel,  equal,  gambol, 
gravel,  grovel,  hatchel,  housel,  jewel,  kennel,  label,  laurel^  level,  libel,  marshal, 
marvel,  model,  panel,  empanel,  parallel,  parcel,  pencil,  peril,  imperil,  pistol, 
pommel,  quarrel,  ravel,  unravel,  revel,  rival,rowel,  shovel,  shrivel,  snivel,  tassel, 
trammel,  travel,  tunnel,  victual. 

Exercises.  —  Spell  the  words  formed  by  adding  ing  and  ed  to 
remit,  impel;  ist  to  drug,  machine,  novel,  natural;  er  to  revel;  ed 
to  fulfil,  rub,  fail,  refer ;  ing  to  squat,  sail,  gallop,  hum  ;  ant  to 
assist;  eni  to  excel;  ine  to  adamant ;  ate  to  alien,  origin;  en  to  red, 
moist,  fright ;  ar  to  consul;  er  to  propel;  ous  io  mountain ;  y  to 
mud,  meal,  sleep  ;  ee  to  commit,  absent,  patent ;  ard  to  slug,  drunk. 
N.  B.  —  In  forming  each  combination,  give  the  Rule  applicable 
to  it. 

Original  Exercises.  —  Bring,  written,  of  your  own  inven- 
tion :  — 

Ten  examples  of  doubling  the  final  consonant  under  the  Rule. 

Five  examples  in  which  thQ  first  condition  only  is  wanting. 

Five,  in  which  the  second  only  is  wanting. 

Five,  in  which  the  third  only  is  wanting. 

Five,  in  which  ihQ  fourth  only  is  wanting. 

RULE  v.— The  terminations  eive  and  ieve. 

In  such  words  as  recdvey  relieve,  etc.,  ei  is  used  if  the 
letter  c  precedes ;  as,  receive,  deceive  ;  but  ie  is  used  if  any 
other  letter  precedes;  as,  relieve,  believe. 

Exercise.  —  Correct  the  mistakes,  if  any,  in  the  following 
words :  retreive,  perceive^  acheive,  concieve. 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Miscellaneous  Exercises. 

Spell  the  following  words,  making  the  necessary  corrections, 
and  show  in  each  case  the  application  of  the  Rule. 

1.  Live-ing,  live-ly-est,  all-so,  boy-ish,  compel-ing,  assail-ing, 
repent-ing,  compuls-ory,  commit-ed,  commit-ment. 

2.  Happy-ness,  art-full,  whole-some,  smoke-y,  trick-y,  love- 
able,  love-ly-ness,  true-th-full-ness,  due-ty-full-ly. 

3.  Copy-ing,  copy-ed,  delay-ed,  whole-ly,  induce-ing,  induce- 
ment, propel-ing,  embroil-ing,  infer-ing,  infer-ence. 

4.  Refine-er,  refine-ment,   amaze-ing,  amaze-ment,  glory-ous, 
beauty-ous,  beauty-full,  libel-er,  sulphuret-ed,  whip-ing. 

5.  Full-some,  awe-full,  all-ways,  well-fare,  abet-ing,  consent- 
ing, recruit-ing,  differ-ing,  fulfil-ment. 


H^. 


Second  Part. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

The  second  part  of  Grammar  is  called  Etymology. 

Note. —  Etymology  takes  its  name  from  the  Greek  words  ety- 
mos  {lTVfiog)j  true  [root],  and  logos  {?^6yog),  discourse  or  treatise, 
because  it  treats  of  the  true  roots  and  meanings  of  words. 

Etymology  treats  of  Words. 

Words  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  Classification, 
Inflection,  and  Derivation. 

By  the  Classification  of  words  is  meant  the  arrange- 
ment of  them  into  different  classes,  according  to  their 
signification  and  use. 

By  the  Inflection  of  words  is  meant  the  change  of  ^ 
form  which  they  undergo. 

By  the  Derivation  of  words  is  meant  tracing  them  to 
their  original  form  and  meaning. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

The  classes  of  words  in  English  are  nine;  namely, 
Articles,  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  Verbs, 

21 


22  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  Prepositions,  and  Inter- 
jections. 

Note.  —  These  clashes  of  words  are  sometimes  called  the  Parts 
of  Speech. 


I.  ARTICLES. 

An  Article  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  show 
whether  the  noun  is  used  in  a  definite,  or  in  an  indefinite 
sense. 

Note. —  Article  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  word  articulus, 
a  joint 

The  Articles  are  a  and  the. 

A  is  the  Indefinite  Article,  the  is  the  Definite 
Article. 

The  Article  a  is  written  an  before  a  word  beginning 
with  a  vowel  sound ;  as,  a  many  an  old  man,  an  honest 
man. 

Note. —  In  determining  whether  to  use  a,  or  to  use  an,  we 
should  notice,not  the'letter,  but  the  real  sound,  with  which  the 
next  word  begins. 

Sometimes  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  lias  the  sound  of  a  conso- 
nant. Thus  o  in  one  is  pronounced  as  if  the  word  began  with  the  consonant 
sound  oi  w  ;  u  in  unit  is  pronounced  as  if  the  word  began  with  the  conso- 
nant sound  oi  y.  In  such  cases  the  article  should  be  a.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  consonant  h  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  sometimes  not  sounded,  as  in 
honest  (pronounced  onest).  In  that  case,  the  article  should  be  an.  The 
following  words,  and  words  derived  from  them,  are  some  of  those  which 
begin  with  silent  h;  honor,  honest,  hour,  heir,  herb,  humble,  hostler. 

A  or  an  means  one,  and  is  used  only  before  the  singu- 
lar number;  as,  a  man,  an  apple. 


ETYMOLOGY  — ARTICLES.  23 

The  is  used  before  both  numbers;  as,  the  man,  the  men, 

|]'Qte  1. —  A  and  the  may  be  considered  the  same  as  one  and 
that,  only  abbreviated  in  form,  and  unemphatic  in  meaning. 

jj'ote  2. —  Some  nouns  in  the  singular  without  an  article  before 
them  are  taken  in  the  widest  sense  for  a  whole  species ;  as,  man, 
for  mankind.  This  usage,  however,  is  by  no  means  universal. 
On  the  contrary,  in  many  words,  the  article  is  used  for  this  very 
purpose ;  as,  the  horse,  for  horses  in  general. 

A  or  an  was  originally  ae,  atie,  or  one.  In  course  of  time  it  became  ab- 
breviated into  its  present  form,  and  by  a  usage  not  uncommon  in  the  his- 
tory of  language,  the  short  form  acquired  a  shade  of  meaning  different  from 
the  long  form,  though  both  were  originally  precisely  the  same.  The  differ- 
ence is  this.  One  expresses  the  idea  of  unity  with  emphasis.  A  expresses 
the  same  idea,  only  without  emphasis.  This  will  be  understood  at  once  by 
an  example.  "Can  one  man  carry  this  weight?"  "  No,  but  tico  could." 
"Can  a  man  carry  this  weight?"  "No,  but  a  horse  could."  The  idea  of 
unity  is  expressed  in  both  of  these  examples ;  but  in  the  former  it  is  em- 
phatic, in  the  latter  it  is  not.  In  the  former,  one  is  the  leading  idea,  as 
distinguished  from  two  or  more ;  in  the  latter,  man  is  the  leading  idea,  as 
distinguished  from  horse  or  other  animal. 

A  similar  remark  may  be  made  in  regard  to  the.  The  word  the  was  origi- 
nally thaet  or  that.  In  course  of  time  it  became  abbreviated,  and  the  short 
form  acquired,  in  usage,  a  shade  of  meaning  different  from  the  original  long 
one.  That  is  demonstrative  with  emphasis  j  the  is  demonstrative  without 
emphasis. 

That  these  words  have  acquired  a  real  difference  in  meaning  as  well  as 
in  form,  is  evident.  1.  Because  a  and  the  cannot  stand  without  a  noun, 
one  and  that  can.  Thus,  I  can  say,  "  Give  me  one,  give  me  that,"  but  I 
cannot  say,  "  Give  me  a,  give  me  the."  2.  Because  a  and  the  do  not  neces- 
sarily contradistinguish  from  tico  and  this,  as  one  and  that  do.  3.  Because 
in  many  cases  they  are  evidently  not  interchangeable.  "A  kingdom  for  a 
horse,"  and  "  one  kingdom  for  one  horse,"  express  different  ideas.  "  The 
revolution,"  means,  in  this  country,  "the  Awjerican"  revolution.  "That 
revolution  "  may  or  may  not  mean  so. 

In  considering  the  article  as  forming  a  separate  part  of  speech,  I  have 
acted  in  conformity  to  the  immemorial  usage  of  all  languages.  The  proper 
rank  of  a  seems  to  be  with  the  indefinite  pronouns,  and  that  of  the  with  the 
demonstrative  pronouns.  If  Grammar  were  a  science  to  be  written  anew, 
very  likely  both  the  article  and  the  adjective  pronouns  would  be  called,  as 
in  their  nature  they  truly  are,  Adjectives.  Even  in  that  case,  however,  it 
is  to  be  remarked,  not  so  much  would  be  gained  in  the  way  of  simplification 
as  some  persons  have  supposed.     We  should  require  in  that  case  a  subdi- 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

vision  of  adjectives,  corresponding  to  tlie  present  subdivision  of  the  adjec- 
tive pronouns,  for  these  words  have  differences  of  meaning  and  construc- 
tion, and,  in  those  languages  which  admit  of  changes  of  termination,  dif- 
ferences also  of  form,  that  clearly  distinguish  them,  both  from  ordinary 
adjectives,  and  from  each  other. 

Exercises. —  Name  the  appropriate  indefiuite  article  to  be 
used  before  each  of  the  following  words :  Ewe,  yew,  eye,  ear, 
watch,  one-eyed  man,  European,  Indian,  umbrella,  use,  end,  day, 
opening,  engineer,  horse,  honest,  hiatus,  human,  humble,  onion, 
orchard,  usury. 

Parsing  Exercise. —  Parse  "  an  "  in  the  sentence  "  Give  me 
an  apple." 

Model. —  "An"  is  the  indefinite  article,  placed  before  the  noun 
"  apple,"  to  show  that  it  is  used  in  an  indefinite  sense. 

Parsing  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  word  para,  part,  because  it  shows 
the  several  parts  of  speech  into  which  a  sentence  is  divided. 

Parsing  consists  in  stating  the  grammatical  properties  and  relations  of 
words,  and  the  rules  of  syntax  which  properly  belong  to  them.  The  pars- 
ing of  a  word  cannot  be  complete  until  the  rules  of  syntax  relating  to  it  are 
understood  and  applied.  But  a  considerable  part  of  parsing  consists  in 
stating  the  grammatical  properties  of  a  word  by  itself,  as  shown  by  ety- 
mology, and  without  reference  to  the  other  words  in  the  sentence.  The 
stating  of  these  properties  in  regular  order  is  called  Etymological  Parsing. 
Exercises  in  etymological  parsing  will  be  given  under  each  Part  of  Speech. 


II.  NOUNS. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing ; 
as,  hoy,  school,  book. 

Note  1. —  The  word  thing  in  the  foregoing  definition  is  used  in 
its  widest  sense,  to  signify  not  merely  external  objects  which 
may  be  seen  and  handled,  but  whatever  may  be  a  subject  of 
thought  or  discoui-se. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  25 

Note  2. —  Letters  and  words  used  technically  are  to  be  consid- 
ered nouns ;  as,  "  Cis  sounded  hard  before  a,  o,  u,  &c. ;  "  "  lb  means 
pound."     "J/e  is  a  pronoun."     "  +  is  the  sign  of  addition." 

Note  3. —  Noun  comes  from  the  Latin  nomen,  a  name. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  If  the  scholar  begins  his  study  of  Grammar  with  this 
book,  instead  of  first  going  through  some  more  elementary  treatise,  the 
teacher  should  make  him  pause  here,  until,  by  repeated  explanations,  and 
by  going  over  exercises  again  and  again,  he  has  become  quite  familiar  with 
the  nature  of  nouns,  and  can  promptly  distinguish  them  in  going  through 
a  sentence.  Exercises  suitable  for  this  purpose  will  be  found  in  the  au- 
thor's "Language  Lessons  for  Beginners,"  pp.  5-13. 

The  noun  is  the  starting-point  in  teaching  a  scholar  to  analyze  a  sen- 
tence. 

L  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NOUNS. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  Pboper 
and  CoxMMON. 

A  Proper  noun  is  a  name  given  to  only  one  of  a  class 
of  objects ;  as,  John,  London,  Delaware, 

Note. —  A  Proper  noun  should  always  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

A  Common  noun  is  a  name  given  to  any  one  of  a 
class  of  objects ;  as,  boy,  city,  river. 

Explanation. —  There  is  a  class  of  objects  called' "  boys."  The  name 
"boy"  is  given  to  any  one  of  that  class.  It  is  common  to  them  all.  One 
particular  boy  is  called  "John."  That  name  is  given  to  him  only.  It  is 
peculiar  or  pro})er  to  him.  So  "city"  is  a  name  given  m  common  to  any 
one  of  another  class  of  objects.  But  "  London  "  is  the  name  given  to  one 
particular  city.  It  belongs  peculiarly  and  'pro'perly  to  that  city.  Any  one 
of  a  certain  other  class  of  objects  is  called  a  "  river."  The  name  is  common 
to  all  such  objects.  But  one  particular  object  of  this  kind  is  called  "  Dela- 
ware."    It  belongs  properly  to  that  particular  river. 

Exercises. —  Which  of  the  following  nouns  are  Proper,  and 
which  Common?     Which  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter? 
remark,  austria,  empire,  country,  holland,  queen,  victoria,  illi- 
nois,  poet,  milton. 
3 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Original  Exercises. —  Bring,  written,  ten  Common  nouns,  and 
ten  Proper  nouns,  besides  those  in  the  foregoing  list. 

FURTHER  CLASSIFICATION. 

Some  Common  nouns  are  further  classified  as  Collective, 
Abstract,  Verbal,  and  Diminutive. 

A  Collective  noun  is  the  name  of  a  collection  of  objects  con- 
sidered as  one;  as,  army,  crowd.  A  Collective  noun  is  also  called 
a  noun  of  Multitude. 

An  Abstract  noun  is  one  which  denotes  the  name  of  a  quality 
apart  from  the  substance  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  sweetness,  beauty. 
Abstract  nouns  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

A  Verbal  noun  is  one  derived  from  a  verb ;  as,  readmg.  It  is 
also  called  a  Participial  noun. 

A  Diminutive  noun  is  one  derived  from  another  noun,  and 
expressing  some  object  of  the  same  kind  but  smaller ;  as,  stream, 
streamlet;  leaf,  leaflet;  hill,  hillock;  duch,  duckling;  goose,  gosling. 

Exercises. —  To  what  kind  or  class  does  each  of  the  following 
Common  nouns  belong?  islet,  spelling,  lambkin,  hillock,  acute- 
ness,  loyalty,  flock,  senate. 

Original  Exercises. —  Bring,  written,  of  your  own  invention, 
ten  Collective  nouns;  ten  Abstract  nouns;  ten  Verbal  nouns; 
three  Diminutive  nouns. 

II.  ATTRIBUTES  OF  NOUNS. 
Nouns  have  the  attributes  of  Gender,  Number,  Per- 
son, and  Case. 

A  noun  has  the  attribute  of  Gender  from  its  expressing  sex; 
of  Number,  from  its  expressing  unity  and  plurality ;  of  Person, 
from  its  expressing  the  relation  of  the  noun  to  the  speaker;  and 
of  Case,  from  its  expressing  the  relation  of  the  noun  to  some  verb, 
preposition,  or  other  noun. 

I.  GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns  in 
regard  to  Sex. 

Note. — Gender  comes  from  the  Latin  genus,  meaning  birth,  or 
kind  by  birth. 


ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS.  27 

Nouns  have  three  genders,  Masculine,  Feminine, 
and  Neuter. 

The  Masculine  denotes  objects  of  the  male  sex  ; 
as,  6oy,  man. 

The  Feminine  denotes  objects  of  the  female  sex  ; 
as,  girlj  woman. 

The  Neuter  denotes  objects  without  sex  ;  as,  book, 
river. 

Some  object  to  our  speaking  of  three  genders,  as  though  it  implied  three 
sexes.  The  objection  arises  from  qpnfounding  gender  with  sex.  Gender 
is  not  sex,  but  a  grammatical  distinction  growing  out  of  sex.  In  reference 
to  sex,  objects  are  divided  into  two  classes,  those  with  sex,  and  those  with- 
out sex.  Objects  with  sex  are  subdivided  into  such  as  are  male  and  such 
as  are  female.  This  gives  us  two  sexes,  male  and  female,  but  three  gen- 
ders, masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter. 

The  English  is,  perhaps,  the  most  philosophical  of  all  languages  in  regard 
to  gender.  In  other  languages,  things  without  life  are  generally  masculine, 
feminine,  or  neuter,  according  to  their  terminations,  and  without  reference 
to  sex  or  the  absence  of  it.  But  in  English,  gender  is  strictly  a  distinction 
of  sex,  things  without  sex  being  invariably  neuter.  In  consequence  of  this 
peculiarity,  the  language  is  capable  of  a  rhetorical  beauty,  which  is  un- 
known in  other  languages.  Personification  (which  means  considering  in- 
animate objects  as  persons  endowed  with  life)  is,  in  its  ordinary  form,  one 
of  the  boldest  figures  of  rhetoric,  and  can  be  used  with  propriety  only  in 
the  highest  flights  of  poetry  and  oratory.  There  is,  however,  a  lower  kind 
of  personification  which  can  be  used  in  English,  and  frequently  with  great 
beauty.  When,  for  instance,  it  is  desirable  to  raise  the  style  slightly  above 
the  tenor  of  prose  composition,  it  can  often  be  done  with  the  greatest  ease, 
simply  by  applying  "  he  "  and  **'  she  "  to  neuter  nouns.  This  indirect  kind 
of  personification  at  once  enlivens  the  style,  without  rendering  it  passion- 
ate or  overwrought.  In  this  way  we  say  of  the  earth,  "  she  is  fruitful,"  of 
the  sun,  "  he  has  risen  in  his  strength,"  of  time,  "  Jie  flies  on  rapid  wings,"  etc. 

When  this  animated  kind  of  phraseology  is  used,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
any  uniform  rule  for  determining  what  nouns  should  be  considered  as  mas- 
culine and  what  feminine.  In  general,  however,  in  such  cases,  nouns  be- 
come masculine  which  indicate  superior  strength,  energy,  or  firmness. 
Those  on  the  contrary  are  feminine  which  indicate  delicacy,  weakness,  or 
timidity,  or  which  are  of  a  passive  rather  than  an  active  nature.  Exam- 
ples of  those  which  are  considered  masculine  are,  sun,  time,  death,  etc. 
Examples  of  feminines  are,  moon,  earth,  church,  nature,  etc. 

In  accordance  with  this,  animals  are  sometimes  regarded  as  masculine  or 


28 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


feminine,  not  from  their  sex,  but  from  the  masculine  or  feminine  qualities 
of  the  tribe  to  which  they  belong.  Thus  we  say:  "  The  lion  meets  hia  foe 
boldly."     "  The  hare  leaps  from  her  covert." 

Modes  of  Distinguishing  Sex. 

There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  sex :  1.  by  the  use  of 
different  words,  as  bachelor,  maid;  2.  by  difference  of  termination, 
as  abbot,  abbess ;  3.  by  prefixing  or  affixing  another  word,  as  he- 
goat,  she-goat ;  landlord,  landlady. 


1.  By  the  use  of  different  words. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Bachelor 

maid 

King 

queen 

Beau 

belle 

Lad 

lass 

Boar 

sow 

Lord        '^ 

lady 

Boy 

girl 

Male 

female 

Brother 

sister 

Man 

woman 

Buck 

doe 

Master 

miss 

Bull 

] 

Mister 

Mistress 

Bullock 

\  cow 

or  Mr. 

Mrs. 

Ox 

j 

Milter 

spawner 

Steer 

heifer 

Nephew 

niece 

Cock 

hen 

Papa 

mamma 

Colt 

filly 

Eam 

ewe 

Dog 

bitch 

Singer 

songstress 

Drake 

duck 

Sir 

madam 

Earl 

countess 

Sire  [the  king) 

Father 

mother 

Sire,  a  horse 

dam 

Friar 
Monk 

nun 

Sloven 
Son 

slattern 
daughter 

Gander 

goose 

Stag 

hind 

Hart 

roe 

Swain 

nymph 

Horse 

mare 

Uncle 

aunt 

Husband 

wife 

Wizard 

witch. 

2.  By  difference  of  termination. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Abbot 

abbess 

Arbiter 

arbitress 

Actor 

actress 

Author 

authoress 

Adulterer 

adulteress 

Baron 

baroness 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS. 


29 


Masculine, 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Caterer 

cateress 

Poet 

poetess 

Chanter 

chantress 

Priest 

priestess 

Conductor 

conductress 

Prince 

princess 

Count 

countess 

Prior 

prioress 

Dauphin 

dauphiness 

Prophet 

prophetess 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Protector 

protectress 

Director 

directress 

Shepherd 

shepherdess 

Duke 

duchess 

Songster 

songstress 

Editor 

editress 

Sorcerer 

sorceress 

Elector 

electress 

Tailor 

tailoress 

Emperor 

empress 

Tiger 

tigress 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

Traitor 

traitress 

Founder 

foundress 

Tutor 

tutoress 

Giant 

giantess 

Tyrant 

tyranness 

God 

goddess 

Viscount 

viscountess 

Governor 

governess 

Votary 

votaress. 

Heir 

heiress 

- 

Host 

hostess 

Administrator 

administratrix 

Hunter 

huntress 

Executor 

executrix 

Instructor 

instructress 

Heritor 

heritrix 

Jew 

Jewess 

Testator 

testatrix 

Lion 

lioness 

Hero 

heroine 

Marquis 

marchioness 

Landgrave 

landgravine 

Mayor 

mayoress 

Bridegroom 

bride 

Monitor 

monitress 

Widower 

widow 

Negro 

negress 

Czar 

czarina 

Patron 

patroness 

Don 

donna 

Peer 

peeress 

Sultan 

sultana. 

3. 

By  prefixing  or 

affixing  another  -word. 

Ma$culine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Landlord 

Isiudlady 

Man-Servant 

maic^-servant 

Gentleman 

gentlewoman 

Male-ehiXd 

female-chWd 

Archc^M^ 

archduchess 

Veacock 

T^eahen 

Schoolmaster 

Bchoolmistress 

Coc^-sp  arrow 

Ae/i-sparrow 

j5e-goat 


she-goat 


Grandifather         grandmother. 


Note  1. —  Some  nouns  denote  objects  which  may  be  either  male 
or  female ;  as,  bird,  parent.    These  are  said  to  be  of  the  Common 

gender. 

3* 


30  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note  2. — Many  masculines  have  no  corresponding  feminines ; 
as,  baker,  brewer,  etc.  A  few  feminines  have  no  corresponding 
masculines ;  as,  laundress,  brunette,  virago,  etc. 

Note  3. —  In  some  of  the  words  which  have  both  masculine 
and  feminine  terminations,  the  masculine  is  ordinarily  used  to 
denote  both  sexes,  wherever  the  office  or  profession  is  the  idea 
chiefly  intended.  When,  however,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  sen- 
tence to  designate  the  sex  of  the  individual  spoken  of,  the  change 
of  termination  is  to  be  observed.  Thus,  "  the  poets  of  the  age  " 
would  be  correct  when  speaking  of  poets  of  both  sexes ;  but  the 
"  best  poetess  of  the  age  "  would  be  used  when  speaking  of  female 
writers  only. 

Note  4. —  In  speaking  of  small  animals,  or  of  those  whose  sex 
is  not  known,  or  not  regarded,  they  are  often  considered  as  with- 
out sex :  thus,  we  say  of  a  cat  "  it  is  treacherous,"  of  an  infant 
"  it  is  beautiful,"  of  a  deer  "  it  was  killed." 

Note  5. — A  Collective  noun  is  neuter  when  it  refers,  not  to  the 
objects  separately,  but  to  the  collection  as  one  whole.  Thus :  The 
class  is  large ;  it  must  be  divided. 

II.    NUMBER. 

Number  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to  Unity 
and  Plurality. 

Nouns  have  two  numbers;  the  Singular  and  the 
Plural. 

The  Singular  denotes  One,  the  Plural  More  than 

ONE. 

Modes  of  forming  the  Plural. 

1.  Plural  in  S. 

Nouns  generally  are  made  Plural  by  adding  s  to  the 
Singular;  as,  book^  books. 

2.  Plural  in  €S, 

Nouns  ending  in  ch  soft,  s,  sh,  x,  and  z,  are  made 
Plural  by  adding  es  ;  as,  church,  churches  ;  misSy  misses  ; 
lash,  lashes;  box,  boxes;  topaz,  topazes. 

Note. —  Nouns  ending  in  o  differ  as  to  the  mode  of  forming  the 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  31 

plural.  Some  form  the  plural  by  adding  es.  Among  these  are 
calico,  cargo,  hero,  motto,  mulatto,  negro,  potato,  tomato,  tornado, 
volcano,  etc.  Others  form  the  plural  by  adding  simply  s.  Among 
these  are  armadillo,  cameo,  canto,  cento,  duodecimo,  folio,  hah, 
junto,  memento,  octavo,  piano,  portico,  proviso,  quarto,  salvo,  sirocco, 
solo,  trio,  tyro,  virtuoso,  zero,  etc. 

Exercise.  —  Spell  the  plural  of  negro,  lynx,  quiz,  radish,  patri- 
arch, peach,  mass,  rhombus,  trio,  motto,  halo. 

8.  Plural  in  ves. 

Nouns  ending  in  single  /,  or  in  /e,  are  made  Plural 
by  changing  /  or  /e  into  ves  ;  as,  loafy  loaves  ;  life,  lives. 

Note  1. — The  following  form  the  plural  according  to  the 
general  rule,  viz. :  Brief,  chief,  dwarf,  fife,  grief  gulf,  hoof,  hand- 
kerchief, kerchief,  mischief,  proof,  reproof,  roof,  safe,  scarf,  strife, 
surf,  turf. 

Note  2. —  Nouns  in  double/ follow  the  general  rule;  as,  muff, 
muffs.  Exc.  Staff,  a  stick,  has  staves  in  the  plural ;  staff,  a  body 
of  officers,  has  staffs.  The  compounds  of  staff  2i\\  have  staffs  in  the 
plural ;  as,  flagstaffs,  tipstaffs,  distaffs,  etc. 

Exercise. —  Spell  the  plural  of  wharf,  half,  cuflf,  leaf,  beef,  calf, 
thief,  wife. 

4.  Plural  in  ies. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant  are  made  Plural 
by  changing  y  into  ies;  as,  lady,  ladies.  J 

Note. —  Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  vowel  do  not  change  y  into 
ies,  but  form  the  plural  by  the  general  rule ;  as,  day,  days. 

Exercise. —  Spell  the  plural  of  the  following:  Kay,  toy,  chim- 
ney, tray,  artery,  Monday,  February,  buoy,  boy,  attorney,  valley, 
money. 

8.  Plural  in  's. 

Letters,  figures,  and  other  characters,  used  as  nouns, 
are  made  Plural  by  adding  the  apostrophe  and  s;  as, 
"Dot  your  i^s  and  cross  your  t^s  ;  "  "the  -f 's  should  be 
transposed ;''  "  Three  6's  =  two  9's." 


32 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Plural  of  Proper  Nouns. 

Proper  nouns,  and  other  parts  of  speech  used  as  nouns, 
are  made  Plural  in  the  same  manner  as  Common  nouns 
of  like  endings ;  as,  the  Fompeys  and  Ciceros  of  the  age ; 
the  ins  and  outs  of  office. 

In  words  of  this  kind,  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant, 
the  usage  is  not  uniform.  Some  simply  add  s;  as.  The 
Marys  and  Marthas;  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Some 
change  the  y  into  ies ;  as,  The  two  SicilieSj  the  Allegha- 
nieSy  jive-twenties. 

Nouns  Irregular  in  the  Plural. 


Singular. 

Hural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Man 

men 

Tooth 

teeth 

Woman 

women 

Goose 

geese 

Child 

children 

Mouse 

mice 

Ox 

oxen 

Louse 

lice. 

Foot 

feet 

Plurals  with  Different  Significations. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Regular. 

Brother  brothers  (0/  same  family) 

Die  dies  {for  coining) 

Genius  geniuses  {inen  of  genius) 

Index  indexes  {tables  of  reference) 

Penny  pennies  ^ 

Pea  peas        >  distinct  objects 

Cow  cows      J 


Irregular. 

brethren  {of  same  society 

dice  {for  gaming) 

genii  {spirits) 

indices  {signs  in  algebra) 

pence 

pease 


the  denomination 


kine    )■  the  kind  of  animal. 


The  compounds  of  man  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  simple  word ;  as,  alderman,  aldermen. 

Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  confound  compounds  of  the  word 
man  with  words  that  accidentally  end  in  those  three  letters.  Thus  states- 
man is  really  compounded  of  two  words,  states  and  man ;  but  Turcoman, 
Mussulman,  German,  are  simple  words,  like  talisman,  ottoman  (a  kind  of 


ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS. 


33 


scat),  and  form  the  plural  regularly,  thus  :  Turcomans,  MussxilmanH,  Germana, 
talismans,  ottomans. 

Plural  of  Compounds. 

Compounds  consisting  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective  connected  by 
a  hyphen  take  the  sign  of  the  plural  upon  the  noun  only ;  as, 
court-martial,  courts-martial. 

Compounds  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  connected  by  a  hyphen,  are 
sometimes  composed  of  two  nouns,  one  of  which  is  used  in  the  sense  tf  au 
adjective,  as  man-trap,  in  which  the  word  man  is  really  an  adjective;  or  of 
a  noun  and  some  combination  of  words  having  the  force  of  au  adjective,  as 
father-in-law,  in  which  the  combination  in-law  has  the  force  of  an  adjective, 
as  much  so  as  the  word  legal.  In  all  these  compounds,  the  sign  of  the 
plural  is  added  to  that  part  of  the  compound  which  really  constitutes  the 
noun,  as,  man-traps,  fathers-in-law. 

In  forming  the  possessive  of  such  compounds,  the  rule  is  different,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  being  uniformly  added  to  the  end  of  the  compound 
expression:  thus,  father-in-laio,  -pi.  fathers-in-laio,  poss.  father-in-law's. 

The  compounds  of  full  form  the  plural  regularly  ;  as,  mouth- 
ful, mouthfuls  ;  spoonful,  spoonfuls  ;  bucketful,  bucketfuls. 

Exercise. —  Form  the  plural  of  the  following:  Man-of-war, 
man-eater,  drum-major,  major-general,  sergeant-at-arms,  hen-coop, 
pin-cushion. 

Plural  of  Foreign  Words. 

"Words  adopted  without  change  from  foreign  languages  gener- 
ally retain  their  original  plurals. 

These  words  are  now  very  numerous,  particularly  in  works  on  science  and 
the  arts,  and  not  a  few  are  to  be  found  in  works  of  every  description.  Only 
a  few  of  the  most  common  can  be  given  here.  For  the  others,  the  learner 
should  consult  a  dictionary. 


Formula 

formulae 

Erratum 

errata 

Nebula 

nebulae 

Gymnasium 

gymnasia 

Addendum 

addenda 

Stratum 

strata 

Arcanum 

arcana 

Automaton 

automata 

Datum 

data 

Criterion 

criteria 

Desideratum 

desiderata 

Phenomenon 

phenomena 

Effluvium 

effluvia 

Alumnus 
C 

alumni 

34 


ENGLISH    GKAMMAK. 


Alumna 

alumnse 

Axis 

axes 

Focus 

foci 

Basis 

bases 

Fungus 

fungi 

Crisis 

crises 

Radius 

radii 

Ellipsis 

ellipses 

Sarcophagus 

sarcophagi 

Hypothesis 

hypotheses 

Stimulus 

stimuli 

Oasis 

oases 

Terminus 

termini 

Parenthesis 

parentheses 

Amanuensis 

amanuenses 

Thesis 

theses 

Analysis 

analyses 

Appendix 

appendices 

Antithesis 

antitheses 

Vertex 

vertices. 

Some  foreign  words  are  so  far  domesticated  as  to  have  an 
English  plural  as  well  as  a  foreign  one.  Among  these  are  the 
following : 


Singular. 

Foreign  Plural. 

English  Flural. 

Cherub 

cherubim 

cherubs 

Seraph 

seraphim 

seraphs 

Memorandum 

memoranda 

memorandums 

Medium 

media 

mediums 

Bandit 

banditti 

bandits 

Stamen 

stamina 

stamens. 

General   Remarks  on  Number. 

1.  Some  nouns  are  for  the  most  part  not  used  in  the  plural. 
Among  these  are  the  names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  arts,  sciences, 
abstract  qualities,  and  of  things  that  are  either  weighed  or  meas- 
ured ;  as,  gold,  goodness,  idleness,  wisdom,  fiour,  milk. 

2.  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural.  Among  these  are 
annals,  antipodes,  archives,  assets,  billiards,  bitters,  cattle,  clothes, 
goods,  nuptials,  measles,  oats,  thanks,  tidings,  victuals,  wages ;  also 
the  names  of  things  consisting  of  two  parts,  as,  bellows,  scissors, 
tongs,  pincers,  tweezers,  trowsers,  etc. 

3.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers.  Among  these  are 
deer,  sheep,  trout,  salmon,  etc. :  also  several  foreign  words,  as  appa- 
ratus, series,  species,  etc.  The  singular  of  such  words  may  gener- 
ally be  distinguished  by  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article  a  or  an  ; 
as,  a  series,  a  deer,  a  trout,  an  apparatus,  etc. 

4.  Many  nouns  are  sometimes  alike  in  both  numbers,  and  at 


ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS.  35 

other  times  have  a  regular  form  for  the  plural.  Among  these  are 
head,  brace,  pair,  couple,  dozen,  score,  etc.  Thus  we  say  "  He 
bought  twenty  dozen  of  them,"  and  "  He  bought  them  in  dozens." 

6.  Some  nouns  are  plural  in  form,  but  either  singular  or  plural 
in  meaning.  Among  them  are  amends,  means,  news,  riches,  etc.; 
also  the  names  of  certain  sciences,  as  conies,  optics,  ethics,  math- 
ematics, etc. 

6.  Means  and  amends  are  singular  when  they  refer  to  only  one 
object,  plural  when  they  refer  to  more  than  one.  The  singular 
mean  is  also  used  to  signify  strictly  the  middle  between  two  ex- 
tremes. News  is  rarely  found  with  a  plural  signification.  Bic/ies 
has  both  a  singular  and  a  plural  signification.  Alms  is  strictly 
singular. 

The  8  at  the  end  of  the  last  two  words  is  not  the  «  of  the  plural  formation, 
but  is  a  part  of  the  original  word.  Thus,  riches  is  derived  from  the  French 
richeaae,  and  according  to  its  derivation  should  properly  be  singular.  But 
usage  has  given  it  both  a  singular  and  a  plural  meaning,  as  stated  above. 
Alma,  however,  from  almesse,  retains  its  original  meaning,  and  is  always 
singular. 

III.   PERSON. 

Person  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  or  pronouns  in 
their  relation  to  the  speaker. 

Nouns  have  tliree  persons,  First,  Second,  and 
Third. 

The  First  person  is  the  Speaker,  The  Second 
is  THE  one  spoken  TO,  the  Third  is  the  one  spoken 
of. 

Note.  — Instances  of  the  use  of  nouns  in  the  First  Person  are 
not  common,  and  as  no  change  in  the  form  of  the  word  takes 
place  in  consequence  of  the  person,  some  grammarians  omit  it 
altogether  in  speaking  of  nouns. 

The  question  whether  nouns  are  really  ever  used  in  the  first  person  is 
not  a  point  perhaps  of  much  practical  importance.  The  following  sen- 
tences, however,  seem  to  be  examples  of  nouns  in  the  first  person  :  —  "  The 
Elder  unto  the  elect  lady  and  her  children,  whom  /love/' etc.  —  2  John  1. 
"  The  Elder  unto  the  well-beloved  Gains,  whom  /  love,"  etc.  —  3  John  1. 
"  Paul,  a  servant,  etc.,  to  Titus,  mine  own  son,"  etc.     In  these  examples. 


36  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  pronouns  /  and  wn'ne  indicate  the  person  of  Elder  and  Paul,  just  as 
clearly,  and  by  just  the  same  kind  of  evidence,  that  the  pronoun  her  indi- 
cates the  gender  of  the  word  lady. 

Exercises.  —  In  the  following  sentences,  tell  which  are  nouns ; 
and  say  of  each  whether  it  is  proper  or  common ;  and  what  is  its 
gender,  number,  and  person. 

I  John  saw  the  holy  city,  new  Jerusalem.  Rouse,  ye  Romans, 
rouse,  ye  slaves.  I  heard  a  voice,  saying  unto  me,  Arise,  Peter. 
We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of 
America. 

*       IV.   CASE. 

Case  distinguishes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
to  other  words. 

The  word  Case  is  from  the  Latin  casus,  a  falling.  It  has  no  reference  to 
the  meaning  of  the  word,  as  now  used  in  Grammar,  but  to  the  way  in  which 
the  cases  were  exhibited  in  the  old  Latin  Grammars,  the  Nominative  being 
put  at  the  top  of  a  series,  and  the  other  cases  being  represented  as  falling 
away  from  it  and  below  it. 

Nouns  have  three  cases,  Nominative,  Possessive, 
and  Objective. 

Note.  —  The  relation  indicated  by  the  case  of  a  noun  includes 
three  ideas,  viz. :  those  of  subject,  object,  and  ownership.  A  noun 
may  be  to  a  verb  in  the  relation  of  its  subject,  or  that  of  which 
the  assertion  is  made,  and  then  it  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  or  it 
may  be  to  a  verb  or  a  preposition  in  the  relation  of  its  object,  or 
that  on  which  some  action  or  relation  terminates,  and  then  it  is 
in  the  objective  case;  or  it  may  have  to  some  other  noun  the  re- 
lation oi  ownership  or  possession,  and  then  it  is  in  the  possessive 
ca6€.    According  to  this  view  of  the  subject. 

The  Nominative  Case  is  that  in  which  a  noun  is  the 
SUBJECT  OF  A  VEEB. 


ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS.  87 

The  Possessive  Case  is  that  which  denotes  owner- 
ship OR  POSSESSION. 

The  Objective  Case  is  that  in  which  the  noun  is 

THE   OBJECT   OF   SOME   VERB   OR   PREPOSITION. 

The  Nominative  and  Objective  cases  are  alike  in  form. 

Note.  —  Pronouns  have  cases,  in  the  same  manner  as  nouns. 

How  to  find  the  Nominative.  —  The  subject  of  the  verb  may  be 
found  by  putting  "  who  "  or  "  what"  before  the  verb  and  asking 
the  question.  Example:  "A  man  bought  a  hat."  Who  bought? 
Ans.  Man.  Therefore,  "  man  "  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  bought," 
and  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

How  to  find  the  Objective.— The  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a 
preposition  may  be  found  by  putting  "  whom  "  or  "  what "  after 
the  verb  or  the  preposition  and  asking  the  question.  Examples : 
"  William  hurt  his  sister."  Hurt  whom  ?  Ans.  Sister.  There- 
fore, "sister"  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "hurt."  "  William  went 
into  the  street."  Into  what?  Ans.  Street.  Therefore,  "  street " 
is  the  object  of  the  preposition  "  into." 

Exercises.  —  Find  the  subject  of  each  verb  in  the  following 
sentences  ;  also,  the  object  of  each  verb  and  preposition : 

The  teacher  of  the  second  division  assigned  to  the  first  section 
a  lesson  in  geography. 

A  lesson  in  geography  was  assigned  to  the  whole  division. 

Idleness  in  youth  brings  misery  in  old  age. 

Lying  leads  to  other  bad  habits. 

Formation  of  the  Possessive. 

The  Possessive  Singular  is  formed  from  the  nomi- 
native singular,  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  8, 

The  Possessive  Plural  is  formed  from  the  nomina- 
tive plural,  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only  when  the  plural 
ends  in  s,  and  by  adding  both  the  apostrophe  and  s 
when  the  plural  does  not  end  in  a, 

A  few  words  here  may  not  be  out  of  place,  in  regard  to  the  true  origin 
of  the  English  Possessive. 

In  the  most  ancient  form  of  the  language,  there  were  threo   distinct 
4 


38  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 

declensions,  each  with  a  different  form  for  the  Possessive,  or  Genitive.  The 
Genitive  ending  of  the  First  declension  was  es,  that  of  the  Second  an,  that  of 
the  Third  e  (1.  Staef,  staefes,  a  letter;  2.  Witega,  witegan,  a  wise  man ;  3. 
Wyln,  wylne,  a  maid-servant).  In  the  changes  which  took  place  after  the 
Norman  conquest,  all  the  inflectional  forms  of  nouns  gave  way  except  some 
remains  of  the  old  Plural  formation,  and  the  Genitive  or  Possessive  of  the 
old  First  declension.  This,  written  sometimes  ea,  and  sometimes  is,  was  in 
universal  use  in  the  time  of  Chaucer  (mannes  wit,  cherubinnes  face, 
Chaucer;  Goddis  grace,  Cristis  vicar,  W7/cliffe),snad  remained  with  little 
change  for  a  full  century  after  Chaucer,  as  late  in  fact  as  A.  D.  1500.  In 
Spenser,  and  in  writers  for  nearly  a  century  after  him,  say  from  A.  D.  1600 
to  nearly  a.  d.  1700,  we  find  three  forms  in  concurrent  use;  namely,  (1)  a 
simply,  the  e  being  dropped  (fathers  kingdom,  mothers  blood) ;  (2)  our 
present  form,  '*,  the  apostrophe  being  used  in  recognition  of  the  lost  e;  (3) 
hia  (Pegasus  his  kind,  Spenser  ;  Marot  his  song,  Fletcher's  Purple  Island), 
the  form  originating  apparently  in  a  mistaken  notion  that  the  's  was  a  cor- 
ruption of  his. 

General  Remarks  on  the  Possessive. 

1.  There  was  at  one  time  a  prevalent  notion,  which  indeed 
to  some  extent  still  prevails,  that  when  the  nominative  ends  in 
s  the  possessive  is  found  by  adding  the  apostrophe  only.  This 
is  true  in  the  plural,  but  not  in  the  singular.  In  the  possessive 
singular,  the  s  is  added,  though  the  nominative  does  end  in  s. 
The  best  writers  at  the  present  day  rarely,  if  ever,  omit  this  addi- 
tional s.   Thus,  Adams's  speeches,  Dickens's  works,  James's  books. 

When,  by  carrying  out  this  rule,  too  great  a  combination  of  hissing  sounds 
is  produced,  the  difficulty  may  be  avoided  by  using  the  alternative  form. 
Thus :  The  sister  of  Moses,  instead  of  Moses's  sister;  for  the  sake  of  con- 
science, instead  of  for  conscience's  sake.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule 
that  seems  thoroughly  established  is  "  for  Jesus'  sake."  This  probably  had 
its  origin  in  the  fact  that  the  name  itself,  in  the  old  works  of  devotion,  was 
Jesu,  giving  regularly  Jesu's  sake,  which  sounds  exactly  like  our  Jesus'  sake. 

2.  When  the  nominative  ends  in  a  sound  with  which  the 
apostrophic  s  cannot  combine,  the  word  is  pronounced  as  if 
es  were  added.  Thus,  church's  is  pronounced  exactly  like 
churches.  In  writing  these  forms,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
be  misled  by  the  sound. 

3.  In  like  manner,  in  nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  conso- 
nant, care  should  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  possessive  sin- 
gular and  the  nominative  plural,  which  are  pronounced  alike, 
though  written  diflferently ;  as,  lady,  pos.  s.  lady's,  nom.  p.  ladies. 


ETYMOLOGY  — NOUNS, 


39 


4.  The  import  of  the  possessive  may  generally  be  expressed 
by  the  preposition  of ;  thus,  "  mavUs  wisdom  "  means  "  the  wis- 
dom of  man."  These  two  forms  of  expression,  however,  do 
not  always  mean  the  same.  Thus,  "the  king's  picture"  may 
mean  a  picture  belonging  to  the  king;  but  "a  picture  of  the 
king"  necessarily  means  sl portrait  of  him. 

5.  The  apostrophe  and  s  do  not  always  indicate  the  pos- 
sessive case.  They  are  sometimes  employed  to  form  the  plural 
of  mere  letters  or  characters  used  as  nouns ;  as  four  3's,  ten  6'5, 
etc. ;  also  to  form  the  singular  of  verbs  of  a  similar  character; 
as,  "  He  pro's  and  con's,  and  weighs  the  matter  o'er." 

Declension  of  Nouns. 


Singvlar, 

Plural. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

ObJ. 

Nona. 

Poss. 

ObJ. 

Friend 

friend's 

friend 

friends 

friends' 

friends 

Man 

man's 

man 

men 

men's 

men 

Church 

church's 

church 

churches 

churches' 

churches 

Lady 

lady's 

lady 

ladies 

ladies' 

ladies 

Jones 

Jones's 

Jones 

Joneses 

Joneses' 

Joneses. 

Exercises  in  Declension.  —  Decline  fox,  farmer,  Benjamin, 
James,  city,  attorney,  lass,  miss. 

Form  the  possessive  case  singular  of  Agnes,  Robert  Morris, 
Roger  Williams,  Martin  Van  Buren,  John  Quincy  Adams,  maid- 
of-all-worh. 

Form  the  possessive  case,  singular  and  plural,  of  baby,  colony, 
landlady,  dray,  calf,  mulatto,  ox,  ox-cart. 

Correct  the  following  expressions:  Lazarv^  son;  The  9s  were 
cast  out;  There  are  two  ks  in  kick;  James'  lesson  is  hard. 


0>KC 


Parsings  Exercises.  —  Parse  John  in  the  sentence,  "John 
went  home." 

Model.  —  "John  "  (1.)  is  a  noun,  it  is  the  name  of  a  person; 
(2.)  a  proper  noun,  it  is  a  name  given  to  only  one  of  a  class; 
(3.)  of  the  masculine  gender,  it  denotes  a  male;  (4.)  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  it  denotes  but  one;  (5.)  in  the  third  person,  it  is 
spoken  of;  (6.)  in  the  nominative  case,  it  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "  went." 


40  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note.  —  The  figures  inserted  in  this  model  are  not  to  be  recited. 
They  are  put  in  to  show  the  order  in  which  the  several  properties 
of  the  word  are  to  be  given.  These  six  items  must  be  given,  and 
given  in  this  order,  in  parsing  every  noun.  The  scholar  in  learn- 
ing, and  the  teacher  in  hearing  the  recitation,  may,  by  following 
the  order  of  the  figures,  know  that  nothing  is  omitted. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  all  the  Nouns  and  Articles  in  the  following 
sentences :  In  a  great  emergency,  Grace  Darling  helped  her 
father  to  row  a  boat  during  a  dreadful  storm,  and  by  this  means, 
in  the  hands  of  Providence,  she  prevented  sorrow  in  many 
mothers'  hearts. 


jl^Kc 


III.  ADJECTIVES. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  a  Noun  or  a 
Pronoun ;  as,  a  good  man,  they  are  wise. 

To  "  qualify  "  means  here  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  thing,  or  to  express 
some  of  its  qualities.  An  adjective  generally  denotes  some  quality  belong- 
ing to  an  object.  It  describes  the  object.  It  serves  to  show  the  diflference 
between  things  having  the  same  name,  as  good  boy,  bad  boy,  sweet  apple, 
sour  apple,  etc. 

Note  1. — Adjective  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  adjectus, 
added  to,  because  it  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun. 

Ifote  2.  — Nouns  become  adjectives  when  they  are  used  to  ex- 
press some  quality  of  another  noun ;  as,  gold  ring,  sea  water. 

Note  3.  —  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns,  and  admit 
of  number  and  case;  as,  our  superiors,  his  betters,  hy  fifties,  for 
twenty's  sake,  etc. 

Note  4.  —  Adjectives  preceded  by  the  definite  article  are  often 
used  as  nouns ;  as,  "  The  little  that  was  known  of  him."  When 
the  expression  refers  to  persons,  the  adjective  is  always  consid- 
ered plural ;  as,  "  the  good,"  meaning  good  men. 

Some  grammarians  have  objected  to  making  adjectives  a  separate  part 
of  speech,  and  have  classed  them  under  the  head  of  nouns,  because  they 
often,  if  not  always,  denote  some  substance,  quality,  or  property,  just  as 


ETYMOLOGY  — ADJECTIVES.  41 

truly  as  nouns  do.  Thus,  "brazen  tube"  means  "a  tube  made  of  trass/' 
The  adjective  brazen  denotes  the  same  substance  that  the  noun  brass  does. 
In  like  manner,  waxen  implies  the  substance  wax,  golden  implies  the  sub- 
stance gold,  hard  the  quality  hardness.  The  objection  is  founded  in  a  mis- 
taken view  of  the  true  nature  of  the  noun.  That  which,  distinguishes  the 
noun  from  the  other  parts  of  speech  is  not  that  it  expresses  an  idea  of 
some  substance,  quality,  or  thing,  and  that  the  others  do  not.  On  the  con- 
trary, every  part  of  speech,  every  word  in  fact,  necessarily  expresses  this  idea, 
in  some  form.  Thus,  "above"  and  "below"  convey  the  idea  of  some  cir- 
cumstance, quality,  or  thing,  just  as  much  as  do  the  words  "top"  and 
"bottom."  In  the  viords  person,  personal,  personally,  personify  ;  thought, 
thoughtful,  thoughtfully,  thinks,  etc.,  we  have  the  same  idea  of  some  sub- 
stance or  thing,  and  this  idea  running  through  a  whole  series  of  words, 
each  of  which  is  a  different  part  of  speech.  The  noun,  then,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  parts  of  speech,  not  from  its  expressing  the  idea  of 
some  substance,  quality,  or  thing,  but  from  its  being  the  name  of  that  idea. 
If  we  speak  or  think  of  the  name  of  that  idea,  we  use  a  noun.  If  we  con- 
nect that  idea  with  any  noun  as  one  of  its  qualities,  accidents,  or  attributes, 
but  without  affirmation,  it  is  an  adjective. 

I.    NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  which  express  number  are  called  Numer- 
als. 

Numeral  Adjectives  are  of  three  kinds,  Cardinal, 
Ordinal,  and  Multiplicative. 

The  Cardinal  Adjectives  denote  how  many;  as,  one, 
two  J  three,  four- J  etc. 

The  Ordinal  Adjectives  denote  in  what  order ;  as, 
Jirstj  second,  third,  fourth,  etc. 

The  Multiplicatives  denote  how  many  fold ;  as,  single, 
double,  triple,  etc. 

There  are  also  various  compound  adjectives  into  which 
the  numerals  enter ;  as,  one-leaved,  two-fold,  etc. 

II.    COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 
Adjectives  are  varied  by  Comparison. 
The  Degrees  of  Comparison  are  three,  Positive,  Com- 
parative, and  SuPERLAxrvE. 
4* 


42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  Positive  expresses  the  quality ;  as,  small,  wise. 

The  Comparative  expresses  the  quality  in  a  higher 
or  lower  degree ;  as,  smaller ,  wiser. 

The  Superlative  expresses  the  quality  in  the  highest 
or  lowest  degree  ;  as,  smallest,  wisest. 

Adjectives  may  express  qualities  in  many  different  degrees  besides  the  three 
mentioned.  Thus,  a  thing  may  be  not  only  black,  blacker,  blackest,  but  blackish, 
intensely  black,  etc.  In  other  words,  the  degrees  of  comparison  may  be-multiplied 
to  almost  any  extent.  Three  of  these,  however,  are  so  much  more  common  than 
the  rest,  that  the  name  is  restricted  to  them. 

Regular  Comparison. 

The  Comparative  is  formed  by  adding  er,  and  the 
Superlative  by  adding  est,  to  the  Positive;  as,  great, 
greater,  greatest. 

Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  are  generally 
compared  by  prefixing  to  the  Positive  the  words  more 
and  most,  less  and  least;  as,  numerous ;  more  numerous, 
most  numerous;  less  numerous,  least  numerous. 

Note  1. —  More  and  most,  less  and  least  may,  in  these  cases,  he 
parsed  separately  as  adverbs,  qualifying  the  adjective ;  or  the 
adverb  and  the  adjective  may  be  taken  together  as  the  compara- 
tive or  superlative  form  of  the  adjective. 

Note  2. —  Some  adjectives  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  most 
to  the  end  of  the  word ;  as,  upper,  upperwzos^. 

Dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  e  are  generally  compared  by  adding  er  and 
est ;  as,  happy,  happier,  happiest ;  able,  abler,  ablest. 

Irregular  Comparison. 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

Good 

better 

best 

Bad 

worse 

worst 

Little 

less 

least 

Much 

more 

most 

Far 

(  farther 
\  further 

r  farthest 
\  furthest. 

ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES.  -43 

Note. —  Bad  has  also  evil  and  ill  in  the  positive ;  and  much  has 
also  many.  Elder  and  eldest  come  regularly  from  eld  (now  obso- 
lete). 

Superlatives  ^A/^ith  Different  Meanings. 

Near       nearer        nearest     {in  place)      next^ 

Lute       later  latest        (in  time)       last    \in  order. 

Fore       former        foremost  {in  place)      first  J 

Note  1. —  Prior,  superior,  ulterior,  exterior,  inferior,  etc.,  involve 
the  idea  of  comparison,  like  the  words  previous,  preferable,  and 
many  others,  but  are  not  considered  as  comparatives,  and  are  not 
followed  by  than,  as  English  comparatives  usually  are. 

Note  2. —  The  termination  ish  makes  what  is  sometimes  called 
a  subpositive ;  as,  bluish,  blackish,  etc. 

Some  of  the  ideas  expressed  by  adjectives  are  fixed  and  absolute.  That 
is,  they  refer  to  things  not  capable  of  increase  or  diminution.  Among  these 
may  be  reckoned  those  which  denote  some  definite  number,  shape,  or  posi- 
tion ;  as,  fjoo,  three,  second,  third,  circular,  triangular,  perpeudicular,  QiG,; 
also  those  which  express  the  substance  of  which  any  thing  is  made,  as, 
golden,  flaxen,  etc. ;  also  many  such  words  as  whole,  tiuiveraal,  supreme. 
All  such  adjectives  are  incapable  of  being  comjjared. 

Exercises  in  Comparison.  —  Compare  unlucky,  lucky,  benev- 
olent, shady,  sad,  active,  abusive,  noisy,  lazy,  gay,  fine,  irregular,  har- 
monious. Juicy,  ill-natured,  thoughtless. 

Give  the  superlative  of  hind,  inner,  outer,  top. 

Parsing  Exercises. — Parse  "wise"  in  the  sentence, "  Solomon 
was  a  wise  king." 

Model. —  "Wise  (1.)  is  an  adjective,  it  is  used  to  qualify  the 
noun  '  king ; '  (2.)  it  is  in  the  positive  degree,  compared  *  wise, 
wiser,  wisest.' " 

Parse  all  the  Nouns,  Articles,  and  Adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences : 

The  exterior  of  the  stone  wall  was  perpendicular.  It  had 
a  thickness  of  two  feet  at  the  top,  and  was  still  thicker  at  the 
bottom. 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

We  should  not  consider  our  inferiors  contemptible,  for  though 
they  may  be  our  inferiors  in  rank,  they  are  perhaps  our  superiors 
in  virtue. 

The  wicked  often  put  off  repentance  to  the  eleventh  hour. 

Eain  water  is  less  pleasant  to  the  taste  than  river  or  spring 
water  is.  Though  the  former  may  contain  less  foreign  matter, 
the  latter  is  more  acceptable  to  the  thirsty. 


U  '' 


5^«^c 


IV.  PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as, 
The  man  is  happy,  because  he  is  benevolent." 
Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  Personal, 
Relative,  and  Adjective. 

Note. — Pronoun  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  pro^  for,  and 
nomen^  a  name. 

There  is,  I  believe,  some  misapprehension  in  regard  to  the  precise  sense 
in  which  a  pronoun  stands  instead  of  a  noun.  Some  writers  seem  to  enter- 
tain the  opinion  that  a  noun  and  its  pronoun  are  strictly  interchangeable 
words,  and  that  not  only  is  the  latter  a  substitute  for  the  former,  but  that 
the  former  may,  in  every  case,  be  restored  to  its  supposed  original  place  in 
the  sentence.  This  mistake  originated  probably  from  confining  the  attention 
to  examples  taken  from  the  third  person,  where  the  noun  may  often,  though 
very  inelegantly,  take  the  place  of  the  pronoun  which  represents  it.  Thus, 
instead  of  "  The  man  is  happy  because  he  is  benevolent,"  we  may  say, 
*'  The  man  is  happy,  because  the  man  is  benevolent."  But,  when  Nathan 
says  to  David,  "Thou  art  the  man,"  David  cannot  be  substituted  for  thou 
without  changing  ithe  sense.  To  understand  precisely  in  what  sense  a 
pronoun  is  used  instead  of  a  noun,  it  should  be  recollected  that  a  noun  has, 
in  the  first  place,  a  meaning  of  its  own,  independently  of  its  connection 
with  the  other  words  in  the  sentence.  Thus,  the  word  "book,"  as  soon  aa 
uttered,  conveys  to  the  mind  a  certain  idea.  In  addition  to  this  idea,  thus 
contained  in  the  word  itself,  a  noun  is  capable  of  conveying  to  the  mind,  at 
the  same  time,  certain  other  ideas  in  consequence  of  its  offices,  as  a,  possessor, 
as  the  subject  or  object  of  the  verb,  as  indicating  some  relation  to  the  speaker, 
etc.  Now,  the  pronoun  discharges  this  latter  class  of  duties  in  place  of  the 
noun,  and  often  where  the  noun  itself  could  not  be  used  for  the  purpose. 
The  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  the  verb,  the  object  of  the  verb,  indicates 


ETYMOLOGY  — PRONOUNS.  45 

the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  the  person  spoken  of,  distinguishes  sex, 
etc.,  just  as  the  noun  would  do  in  its  place.  At  the  same  time,  the  noun 
cannot  always,  nor  even  often,  replace  the  pronoun  which  refers  to  it. 

I.    PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

The  Personal  Pronouns  are  five;  /,  thouj  /le,  she,  it; 
with  their  plurals,  we^  you,  they. 

They  are  called  Personal  Pronouns  because  they  de- 
note person  by  tlieraselves,  and  without  reference  to  any 
other  word. 

Personal  Pronouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and 
Case. 

The  Personal  Pronouns  express  the  idea  of  Person  by  themselves,  and 
independently  of  their  connection  with  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 
Thus,  /,  thou,  he,  convey  the  idea  of  person  at  once,  as  soon  as  uttered. 
This  idea,  so  far  as  it  is  expressed  by  the  relative  pronouns,  and  by  nouos, 
is  conveyed,  not  by  anything  in  the  meaning  of  the  words  themselves,  but 
by  means  of  their  connection  with  other  words.  Thus,  who,  by  itself,  con- 
veys no  intimation  of  person;  but  it  becomes  personal  as  soon  as  it  is  con- 
nected with  an  antecedent,  as  he  who,  thou  who,  man  who.  Some  of  the 
adjective  pronouns  (the  Demonstrative)  express  indeed  the  idea  of  person 
by  their  own  proper  meaning,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  personal  pronoun, 
but  they  also  express  an  additional  and  more  important  idea,  which  suffi- 
ciently distinguishes  them  from  the  former  class.  Their  demonstrative 
character  is  the  predominating  one,  and  gives  them  their  name.  In  like 
manner  the  Relative  pronouns  are  distinguished  from  the  other  classes. 
Every  pronoun,  indeed,  so  far  as  it  is  a  pronoun  at  all,  necessarily  relates 
to  something.  But  this  relation  is  not  the  leading  and  prominent  idea  in 
any  except  the  Relative  pronouns.  In  each  class,  it  is  the  leading  and 
prominent  idea  which  gives  name  to  the  class,  and  not  any  property  which 
it  possesses  exclusive  of  the  rest.  Thus,  the  leading  idea  in  the  Personal 
pronouns  is  the  distinction  of  person;  in  the  Relative  pronouns,  the  rela- 
tion to  the  antecedent ;  in  the  Adjective  pronouns,  the  dependence  of  the 
word  upon  some  noun  in  the  manner  of  an  adjective. 

Declension  of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 
First  Person  —  Masc.  or  Fern. 

Singular.  Plural. 


Nom. 

/ 

Nom. 

we 

Poss. 

mi/,  or  mine 

Poss. 

our,  or  ours 

Obj. 

me 

Obj. 

us. 

46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


Second  Person 

—  Masc.  or  Fem. 

Singular.                                                              Plural. 

Nom. 

thou 

Nom.     you 

Poss. 

thy,  or  thine 

Poss.     your,  or  yours 

Obj. 

thee 

Obj.       you. 

Third  Person— Masculine. 

Singular.                                                              Plural. 

Nom. 

he 

Nom.     they 

Poss. 

his 

Poss.      their,  or  theirs 

Obj. 

him 

Obj.       thejn. 

Third  Person  — Feminine. 

Singular.                                                              Plural. 

Nom. 

&he 

Nom.     they 

Poss. 

her,  or  hers 

Poss.      their,  or  theirs 

Obj. 

her 

Obj.       ^Aewi. 

Third  Person  —  Neuter. 

Singular.                                                             Plural. 

Nom 

it 

Nom.     they 

Poss. 

its 

Poss.      ^AaV,  or  theirs 

Obj. 

it 

Obj.       ^Ae7/i. 

The  fact  that  in  most  languages  no  separate  forms  have  been  invented  for 
the  masculine  and  feminine  of  the  First  and  Second  Persons  may  be  ac- 
counted for  perhaps  by  inquiring  into  the  reason  why  gender  itself  was  in- 
vented. Gender  seems  to  be  a  contrivance  to  assist  in  distinguishing  more 
clearly  the  person  or  thing  that  is  the  subject  of  discourse.  Now  in  the  first 
and  second  persons,  this  is  unnecessary.  The  !=peaker,  and  the  one  spoken  to, 
are  present  to  the  view,  and  by  that  very  fact  need  nothing  else  to  distin- 
guish them.  But  the  third  person,  that  is,  the  thing  spoken  of,  is  or  may 
be  absent,  and  needs  the  distinction  of  gender  to  designate  it  more  clearly. 

Remarks  on  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  In  the  first  person,  the  plural  we  is  often  used  for  the 
singular  /,  by  Editors,  Reviewers,  Governors,  etc. 

2.  In  the  second  person,  the  plural  is  generally  used  for  the 
singular.  Thus,  you  is  used  for  thou,  your  or  yours  for  thy 
or  thine,  and  you  for  thee.  In  prayers  to  God,  however,  and  on 
other  solemn  occasions,  we  use  the  singular  form,  thou,  thy  or 
thine,  thee. 

3.  Where  a  plural  pronoun  is  thus  used,  while  only  one 
person  is  meant,  the  verb  as  well  as  the  pronoun  must  be  plural. 
Thus :  we  are,  not  we  is  ;  you  were,  not  you  was. 


ETYMOLOGY  — PRONOUNS.  47 

4.  The  second  person  plural  had  originally  ye  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  you  in  the  objective.  The  form  ye,  however,  has  now 
become  obsolete,  and  yoa  is  used  both  for  the  nominative  and 
the  objective. 

5.  The  Possessives  should  never  be  written  with  an  apostrophe, 
her'Sy  it's,  our'Sf  your's,  their's,  but  always  thus:  hers^  its,  ours, 
yours,  theirs. 

6.  The  adjective  own  is  frequently  found  connected  with  the 
possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun,  in  order  to  make  the 
possessive  emphatic ;  thus,  "  It  is  your  own  fault." 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns. 

Myself,  thyself,  himself  herself  and  itself  with  their 
plurals,  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves,  are  called  Cora- 
pound  Personal  Pronouns. 

Note.  —  In  the  Compound  Personal  Pronouns,  the  nominative 
and  objective  cases  are  alike,  and  the  possessive  is  wanting.  No 
formal  declension  of  them,  therefore,  is  needed. 

These  Compound  Personal  Pronouns,  it  is  to  be  noticed,  are  fonned  by 
adding  self  in  the  Singular  and  selves  in  the  Plural  to  the  simple  pronoun. 
This  addition  is  made,  in  the  first  and  second  persons,  to  the  Possesulve  case 
of  the  pronoun  j  in  the  third  person,  the  addition  is  made  to  the  Objective. 

Parsing  Exercises.  —  Parse  "he,"  in  the  sentence,  "When 
John  was  at  school,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  his  father." 

Model.  —  "He"  is  (1.)  a  personal  pronoun,  (2.)  masculine 
gender,  (3.)  singular  number,  (4.)  third  person,  (5.)  nominative 
case,  subject  of  the  verb  "wrote." 

Parse  all  the  Personal  Pronouns  in  the  following  examples : 

The  wind,  when  it  blows  upon  my  body,  making  it  shiver,  tells 
me  that  I  am  mortal,  though  some  persons  would  only  complain 
that  they  were  obliged  to  bear  its  bufFetings. 

The  Queen  of  Sheba  retired  from  Solomon's  presence,  con- 
vinced that  his  wisdom  was  greater  than  any  account  that  had 
been  given  to  her  of  it,  would  have  led  her  to  infer. 

We,  the  people,  watch  with  jealousy  those  who  are  our  rulers, 
that  they  may  not  infringe  upon  our  rights,  and  that  the  liberties 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

which  we  possess  may  be  secured  to  our  children  when  they  suc- 
ceed us. 

Parse  all  the  Articles,  Nouns,  and  Adjectives  in  the  foregoing 
sentences. 

II.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

The  Kelative  Pronouns  are,  who,  which,  what,  and 
that. 

These  are  called  Relative  Pronouns  because  they  re- 
late to  some  word  going  before,  called  the  antecedent ; 
as,  "  J7ie  boy  who  wishes  to  be  learned  must  be  studious." 

Every  pronoun,  indeed,  necessarily  relates  to  the  word  which  it  represents. 
But  this  relation  is  not  the  leading  and  prominent  idea  in  any  except  the 
Relative  pronouns.     (See  remarks  under  Personal  Pronouns,  p.  45.) 

Wlio  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons;  as,  "The  gentle- 
man who  called,"  "  The  lady  who  called." 

Which  is  used  ordinarily  in  speaking  of  inferior 
animals,  or  of  things  without  life ;  as,  *^  The  horse  which 
was  bought,"  "  The  pencil  which  was  given." 

Which  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  pronoun;  as,  "  Which 
things  are  an  allegory." 

JV/iat,  as  a  relative,  takes  the  place  of  which  whenever 
the  antecedent  is  omitted. 

"  This  is  [the  thing]  which  I  wanted."  If  we  omit  the  ante- 
cedent, the  which  must  be  changed  to  what.  "  This  is  [  ]  what 
I  wanted."  No  reason  can  be  given  for  this  peculiarity,  except 
that  custom  has  made  it  so.     It  is  a  law  of  the  language. 

We  have  a  usage  somewhat  like  this  in  some  of  the  possessive  pronouns. 
*'This  is  my  [book]."  If  we  leave  out  the  noun,  the  pronoun  must  he 
changed.  "  This  is  inine  [  ]."  The  pronouns  which  follow  this  rule  are 
six,  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs.  They  uniformly  take  the  place  of 
the  ordinary  form,  whenever  the  noun  expressing  the  thing  possessed  is 
omitted,  just  as  wliat  takes  the  place  of  which  whenever  the  antecedent  is 
omitted. 


ETYMOLOGY  — PRONOUNS.  49 

The  word  left  out  in  these  cases  is  usually  something  so  easily  supplied, 
that  it  seems  to  exist  in  the  pronoun  itself,  whereas  it  really  exists  only  in 
our  own  thoughts.  What  dOes  not  of  itself  mean  "  the  thing  which,"  any 
more  than  mine  of  itself  means  "my  hook."  In  both  instances,  the  noun 
is  at  once  suggested  to  the  mind,  but  it  is  not  wrapped  up  in  some  myste- 
rious manner  in  the  pronoun. 

We  have  in  English  other  instances  which  still  further  strengthen  this 
view  of  the  case. 

"  [He]  who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash."  Here  tcho  does  not  stand  for 
"  he  who  ;  "  the  antecedent  is  supplied  by  the  mind. 

"  We  speak  that  [which]  we  do  know."  John  3:  10.  "I  am  that  [which] 
lam."  Ex.  3:  14.  **  Gather  the  sequel  by  that  [which]  went  before."  — 
Shakespeare.  Here  we  do  not  say  that  that  is  equivalent  to  "  that  which." 
The  "  which  "  is  suggested  by  the  mind,  not  wrapped  up  in  the  "  that." 

Wliat  always  refers  to  things  without  life,  and  therefore  is 
always  neuter.  It  maybe  either  singular  or  plural.  "What 
[the  thing  which]  appears  to  be  a  fault  is  only  a  virtue  in  dis- 
guise." "  What  [the  things  which]  appear  to  be  faults  are  only 
virtues  in  disguise." 

What  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  pronoun ;  as,  "  We  lost  what 
books  we  had." 

Here  lost  has  for  its  object  some  words  understood,  which  the  mind 
readily  suggests.  But  if  we  insert  them,  the  other  part  of  the  construction 
is  immediately  changed.  "  We  lost  [those  books]  lohich  [  ]  wo  had."  What 
books  is  allowable  only  when  the  corresponding  antecedent  words  are  left 
out. 

Thxdy  as  a  relative,  takes  the  place  of  either  who  or 
which. 

That  is  used  in  speaking  either  of  persons  or  of  things ;  as, 
"  The  best  boy  that  lives,"  "  The  same  book  that  was  lost,"  and  it 
is  used  in  both  numbers ;  as,  "  The  best  boys  that  live,"  "  The 
same  books  that  were  lost." 

The  word  that  is  used  in  three  senses.  1.  Sometimes  it  has  the 
niejining  of  who  or  luhich;  as,  "The  best  boy  that  lives;"  and 
tlien  it  is  a  Relative  Pronoun.  2.  Sometimes  it  points  out  a 
noun ;  as,  that  boy ;  and  then  it  is  an  Adjective  Pronoun.  3. 
Sometimes  it  shows  the  dependence  of  one  verb  upon  another; 
as.  He  wished  that  he  had  done  it ;  and  then  it  is  a  Conjunction. 
5  D 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

What  and  that  are  indeclinable. 

Who  and  which  are  alike  in  both  numbers,  and  are 
thus  declined  : 

Sing,  and  Plur.  Sing,  and  Plur. 


Nom.    who 
Poss.      whose 
Obj.       whom. 


Nom.  which 
Poss.  whose 
Obj.       which. 


Compound  Relatives. 

The  Compound  Relatives  are  six,  namely,  whoever,  who- 
soever, whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  whatsoever. 

They  are  formed  by  adding  ever  and  soever  to  the  rel- 
atives who,  which,  and  what. 

These  Compounds  are  sometimes  separated  by  an  intervening  noun ;  as, 
"  Into  whose  house  soever  ye  enter." 

Whosoever  is  regularly  declined  like  who  ;  thus, 

Sing,  and  Plur. 

Nom.    whosoever 
Poss.      whosesoever 
Obj.       whomsoever. 

The  other  Compound  Relatives  are  indeclinable. 

Like  the  relative  ivhat,  the  Compound  Relatives  are  for  the 
most  part  used  when  the  related  noun  or  pronoun  is  omitted ;  as, 
"  Whosoever  committeth  sin  [he]  is  the  servant  of  sin,"  "  Whatever 
is  evil  [it]  should  be  avoided." 

Sometimes,  however,  for  greater  emphasis,  especially  in  ancient 
writings,  the  related  noun  or  pronoun  is  expressed ;  as,  "  Blessed 
is  he,  whosoever  shall  not  be  offended  in  me,"  "Whosoever  will, 
let  him  take  of  the  water  of  life." 

Whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever  are  also  used 
as  adjective  pronouns ;  as,  "  Whichever  side  you  choose,  you  are 
sure  to  win." 

Whether  (meaning  which  one  of  the  two)  is  now  obsolete,  which 
being  used  in  its  place.     Whether  (a  Conjunction)  is  still  in  use. 


ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS.  51 

Whoso,  formerly  iised  for  whoever,  or  whosoever,  is  also  now  ob- 
solete. 

Interrogatives  and  Responsives. 

In  ashing  questions,  who,  which,  and  what  are  called 
Interrogatives, 

In  answering  questions,  who,  which,  and  what  are  called 
Eesponsives. 

As  Interrogatives,  who,  which,  and  what  have  no  antecedent,  but 
relate  to  a  word  subsequent,  contained  in  the  answer.  Thus,  "  WIio 
did  it?  John." 

As  responsives,  who,  which,  and  what  seem  to  relate  to  no  word, 
either  antecedent  or  subsequent.  Thus,  in  the  response,  "  I  do  not 
know  who  wrote  it,"  supplying  an  antecedent  changes  the  meaning. 
*•'  I  do  not  know  the  person  who  wrote  it,"  means,  I  am  not  acquainted 
with  him,  which  is  quite  a  diflferent  idea. 

Which  and  what,  when  used  as  Interrogatives,  or  Responsives, 
or  when  joined  with  ever  and  soever,  apply  to  persons  as  well  as 
things;  as.  Which  of  them  did  it?  John.  What  is  he?  A 
lawyer. 

The  Responsive  used  in  answering  a  question  must  be  the  same 
as  the  one  used  in  asking  it ;  thus,  Wio  wrote  the  book  ?  I  do 
not  know  who  wrote  it.  Which  of  the  gentlemen  was  it?  I  do 
not  know  which  of  them  it  was.  ^Vhat  is  he  ?  I  do  not  know 
what  he  is. 

In  asking  about  persons,  who  inquires  for  the  name  ;  as,  "  Who 
wrote  the  book?  Mr.  Webster;"  which  asks  for  the  particular 
individual,  where  there  are  several  persons  of  the  same  name ;  as, 
"  Which  of  the  Websters  wrote  it?  Noah  Webster;"  what  asks 
for  the  person's  character  or  occupation;  as,  "  What  was  Mr. 
Webster?     A  lexicographer." 

Note.  —  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  always  of  the  same  gender, 
number,  and  person  as  its  antecedent. 

Models  for  Parsing.  —  "John,  who  was  at  school,  wrote  a 
letter  to  his  father."  "  Who"  (1.)  is  a  relative  pronoun,  relating 
to  "John"  for  its  antecedent;  (2.)  it  is  in  the  masculine  gender, 


62  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

(3.)  singular  number,  (4.)  and  third  person,  to  agree  with  "John ;" 
and  (5.)  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  was." 

"Give  me  what  I  want."  "What"  (1.)  is  a  relative  pronoun, 
relating  to  "that"  or  some  other  like  antecedent  omitted;  (2.) 
it  is  in  the  neuter  gender,  (3.)  singular  number,  (4.)  and  third 
person,  to  agree  with  the  omitted  antecedent;  and  (5.)  it  is  in 
the  objective  case,  object  of  the  verb  "  want." 

"  We  lost  what  books  we  had."  "  What "  is  a  relative,  used  as 
an  adjective  pronoun,  and  as  such  qualifies  "  books." 

"  Wlhoever  hopes  to  win  the  prize,  must  labor  hard."  "  Who- 
ever" (1.)  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  composed  of  who  and 
ever  ;  (2.)  it  relates  to  "person"  or  some  other  like  word  omitted, 
which  omitted  word  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  must  labor ;  "  (3.) 
"whoever"  is  in  the  common  gender,  (4.)  singular  number,  (5.) 
third  person,  to  agree  with  the  omitted  antecedent;  and  (6.) 
it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "hopes." 

"TT%o  wrote  the  letter?  John."  "Who"  is  an  interrogative 
pronoun,  relating  to  the  subsequent  word  "John ; "  it  is  in  the 
masculine  gender,  singular  number,  and  third  person,  to  agree 
with  "John  ;"  and  is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb 
"  wrote." 

"  Who  wrote  the  letter  ?  "  "  Who"  is  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
relating  to  some  noun  contained  in  the  answer,  and  not  yet  given  ; 
its  gender,  number,  and  person,  therefore,  cannot  be  determined ; 
it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  wrote." 

"  I  do  not  know  who  wrote  it."  "  Who,"  is  a  responsive  pro- 
noun, not  relating  to  any  word,  either  antecedent  or  subsequent ; 
its  gender,  number,  and  person,  cannot  be  determined ;  it  is  in 
the  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  wrote." 

Parsing  Exercises.  —  Parse  all  the  pronouns,  Eelative,  Com- 
pound Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Responsive,  in  the  following 
sentences : 

In  this  country  in  which  we  live,  every  one  that  is  a  citizen 
can  enjoy  what  in  other  countries  is  enjoyed  by  only  a  favored 
few.  The  President  whom  we  have  just  chosen  to  rule  over  us 
is  a  living  example  of  what  the  poorest  man  may  achieve. 
Whoever  has  the  ability  to  rise,  is  in  no  way  checked  by  a  gov- 
ernment which  affords  equal  protection  to  all. 

By  what  slow  degrees  the  little  acorn  becomes  the  mighty 
oak  I 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PRONOUNS.  53 

Whatever  skill  I  have  in  composition,  is  due  to  the  manner  in 
which  I  was  trained. 

In  the  haste  and  confusion,  I  could  not  see  by  whom  it  was 
that  he  was  struck. 

What  happened  to  you  and  your  sister  on  your  way  to  school  ? 

Parse  each  of  the  Articles,  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Personal 
Pronouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 

III.   ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

The  Adjective  Pronouns  are  so  called  because  they 
qualify  or  limit  a  noun,  as  an  adjective  does. 

The  proper  rank  of  the  class  of  words  hero  called  Adjective  Pronouns 
is  a  matter  about  which  there  is  a  good  deal  of  difiference  of  opinion.  They 
have  the  construction  of  adjectives,  being  always  connected  with  a  noun, 
expressed  or  understood.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  used  without  the 
noun,  and  instead  of  it,  in  such  a  way,  and  to  so  much  greater  extent 
than  ordinary  adjectives,  as  to  give  them  decidedly  a  Pronominal  character. 
They  seem  in  fact  to  hold  a  sort  of  middle  position  between  adjectives  and 
pronouns.  Hence,  they  are  called  by  some,  Pronominal  Adjectives  j  by 
others,  Adjective  Pronouns.  I  adhere  to  the  latter  name,  because  it  has 
been  admitted  into  the  grammars  of  almost  all  languages,  ancient  and 
modern,  and  because  I  deem  any  change  of  established  nomenclature  a 
serious  evil,  not  to  be  incurred  unless  for  the  most  urgent  reasons.  In  this 
case,  no  substantial  error  seems  likely  to  arise  from  classing  these  words 
under  either  head.  The  principal  point  for  the  learner  is  to  know  which 
the  words  are,  and  to  have  some  tolerably  accurate  name  by  which  to  call 
them. 

The  Adjective  Pronouns  are  subdivided  into  three 
kinds  or  classes ;  viz.  Distributive,  Demonstrative,  and 
Indefinite. 

Note.  —  My,  thij,  his,  hei',  its,  our,  your,  and  their  (which  have 
been  given  as  personal  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case)  are  some- 
times called  Possessive  Adjective  Pronouns. 

I.  DISTRIBUTIVES. 

The  Distributive  Adjective  Pronouns  are  eachy  every, 
either y  neither. 


54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

These  are  called  Distributives,  because  they  refer  separately 
and  singly  to  each  person  or  thing  of  a  number  of  persons  or 
things.  The  Distributive  Adjective  Pronouns,  therefore,  are  all 
in  the  singular  number. 

Each  is  used  when  speaking  of  two  or  more.  Example :  ^'Each 
of  you  must  go  directly  home."  This  will  be  correct  whether  it 
is  addressed  to  two  persons,  or  to  more  than  two. 

Every  is  never  used  except  when  speaking  of  more  than  two. 
Example:  '^ Every  one  of  you  must  go  directly  home."  This 
would  not  be  correct  if  addressed  to  only  two  persons. 

Each  and  every  mean  all  that  make  up  the  number,  although 
taken  separately. 

Either  means  one  or  the  other,  but  not  both.  It  is  used,  there- 
fore, when  speaking  of  but  two  persons  or  things. 

Neither  means  not  ieither. 

II.  DEMONSTRATIVES. 

The  Demonstrative  Adjective  Pronouns  are  this  and 
thaty  with  their  plurals,  these  and  those. 

They  are  called  Demonstratives,  because  they  point  out  in  a 
definite  manner  the  objects  to  which  they  relate;  as,  "This  hoy 
recited  well,  but  that  boy  did  not;  "  "  These  men  are  ofiicers,  but 
those  men  are  privates. " 

The  Demonstratives  this  and  these,  are  applied  to  near  objects ; 
that  and  those  to  objects  that  are  distant. 

In  contrast,  that  refers  to  the  first  mentioned,  this  to  the  last; 
as,  "Wealth  and  poverty  are  both  temptations;  that  [wealth] 
tends  to  excite  pride,  this  [poverty]  to  discontent." 

III.  INDEFINITES. 

The  Indefinite  Adjective  Pronouns  are  any,  ally  suchy 
somey  bothy  one,  none,  other,  another. 

They  are  called  Indefinites,  because  they  point  out  in  an 
indefinite  manner  the  objects  to  which  they  relate. 

One,  other,  another  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns.  When  thus 
used,  they  are  declined.    Thus : 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  55 

( Nom.  One  r  Nom.  Other 

Sing.     <  Poss.  One's  Sing.     <  Poss.  Other's 

lobj.  One  lobj.  Other 

rNom.  Ones  rNom.  Others 

Plur.     }  Poss.  Ones'  Flur.     \  Poss.  Others' 

(Obj.  Ones.  I  Obj.  Others. 

Another  is  merely  the  article  an  and  other,  and  is  used  only 
in  the  singular  number,  Nom.  Another,  Poss.  Another's,  Obj. 
Another. 

Parsing  Exercises. —  Parse  **this,"  in  the  sentence,  "John 
wrote  this  letter." 

Model. —  "This"  (1.)  is  a  demonstrative  adjective  pronoun, 
(2.)  singular  number,  (3.)  and  belongs  to  or  limits  the  nouu 
"  letter." 

Parse  the  Pronouns,  Personal,  Relative,  and  Adjective,  in  the 
following  sentences : 

Tliat  class  of  society  in  which  only  those  who  are  wealthy  are 
members,  and  in  which  each  individual  possesses  no  other  merit, 
may  be  respected,  but  it  has  not  the  highest. claims  to  respecta- 
bility. All  wise  and  good  men,  of  any  class,  or  of  whatever  rank, 
or  of  either  of  the  two  grades  which  the  world  has  made,  —  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  —  are  worthy  of  respect.  Such  men  receive  the 
respect  of  all. 

V.    VERBS. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  assert  or  affirm ;  as  "  John 
strikes  tlie  table." 
Note.  —  Verb  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  verbum,  a  word. 

Affirmation  is  true  of  no  other  part  of  speech,  and  may  bo  considcreQ  the 
diftinguifhing  characteristic  of  the  verb.  The  general  idea,  which  in  a 
verb  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  an  assertion,  may  bo  conceived  of  in 
various  other  forms,  and  so  become  successively  difTcrent  parts  of  speech. 
Thus,  for  instance,  take  the  general  idea  of  sleeping.  If  wo  think  or  speak 
of  the  name  of  this  idea,  it  is  a  Noun,  as,  sleep.  If  the  idea  is  connected 
with  any  subject  as  one  of  its  accidents,  qualities,  or  attributes,  but  without 


56  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

any  aflSrmation,  it  is  an  Adjective,  as,  the  sleepy  boy.  If  the  idea  is  afiBrmed 
or  predicated  of  the  subject  of  discourse,  it  is  a  verb,  as,  the  boy  sleeps.  The 
idea  may  be  introduced  as  a  modification  of  some  other  quality  or  attribute, 
and  then  it  is  an  Adverb,  as,  the  boy  acts  sleepily.  In  all  these  instances,  the 
same  general  idea  exists  as  a  common  substratum,  or  groundwork.  That 
which  distinguishes  one  part  of  speech  from  another,  is  not  that  one  expresses 
some  idea  of  an  act  or  a  substance  and  another  does  not  (which  is  not  true) ; 
but  that  an  idea,  when  conceived  and  spoken  of  as  the  subject  of  discourse, 
is  a  Noun ;  when  conceived  and  spoken  of  as  an  attribute  or  quality  of  some 
subject,  is  an  Adjective;  when  affirmed  or  predicated,  is  a  Verb.  The  fol- 
lowing, from  the  Latin,  is  a  good  example  of  the  same  general  idea  being 
conceived  of  under  different  forms  and  becoming  successively  different  parts 
of  speech:  ^' Docere  docilem  facile  est,  ut  docilitatis  suae  edat  documentumj 
celeri  apprehensione  doctrinse,  fiatque  vir  doctus,  et  sentiat  docte."  The 
distinction  here  insisted  on  is  as  old  as  Aristotle,  and  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of.     See  remarks  upon  the  Adjective,  pp.  40,  41. 


I.  ATTRIBUTES  OF  VERBS. 

Verbs  have  the  attributes  of  Voice,  Mood,  Tense, 
Number,  and  Person. 

Certain  parts  of  the  verb  also  are  called  Participles. 

I.  VOICE. 

Voice  is  that  attribute  of  the  verb  which  denotes 
whether  the  subject  or  nominative  of  the  verb  acts,  or  is 
acted  upon. 

Verbs  have  two  voices,  the  Active,  and  the  Passive. 

The  Active  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
denotes  that  the  subject  or  nominative  acts,  or  does  the 
thing  mentioned ;  as,  "  John  strikes  the  table." 

The  Passive  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
denotes  that  the  subject  or  nominative  is  acted  upon ;  as, 
"  The  table  is  struch  by  John." 

Explanation. —  Take  the  sentence,  "  John  strikes  the  table."  The  sub- 
ject or  nominative  of  the  verb  is  John,  who  performs  the  action.  It  is 
of  him  that  the  assertion  is  made.     But  suppose  the  same  action  to  be 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  67 

expressed  thus  :  "  The  table  is  struck  by  John."  Here,  the  subject  or  nom- 
inative of  the  verb  is  changed.  It  is  of  the  table  that  the  assertion  is  now 
made.  In  the  first  form  of  the  sentence,  the  subject  of  the  verb  acta  ;  in  the 
second  form,  the  subject  is  acted  upon.  That  attribute  of  a  verb  by  which 
it  thus  denotes  whether  the  subject  of  the  affirmation  acts,  or  is  acted  upon, 
is  called  Voice. 

II.  MOOD. 

Mood  is  that  attribute  of  a  verb  by  which  it  denotes 
the  manner  or  way  in  which  the  assertion  is  expressed. 

Note. —  Mood  is  only  another  form  of  the  word  "  mode,"  and 
signifies  manner,  or  way. 

Verbs  have  five  Moods,  the  Indicative,  the  Subjunc- 
tive, the  Potential,  the  Imperative,  and  the  Infinitive. 

It  is  the  office  of  the  verb  to  assert  or  affirm  something.  If  this  asser- 
tion or  affirmation  is  limited  to  some  subject  or  nominative,  the  verb  is  said 
to  he  finite.  The  assertion  may  be  connected  with  the  subject  in  four  dif- 
ferent ways,  giving  rise  to  the  four  finite  modes  or  moods.  1.  The  asser- 
tion may  be  expressed  directly  and  without  limitation,  and  then  it  is  in  the 
Indicative  mood;  as,  "The  boy  sleeps."  2.  It  may  be  expressed  as  an  un- 
certainty, and  then  it  is  in  the  Subjunctive  mood;  as,  "If  the  boy  sleep." 
3.  It  may  bo  expressed  as  a  possibility,  etc.,  and  then  it  is  in  the  Potential 
mood ;  as,  "  The  boy  may  sleep."  4.  It  may  be  expressed  as  a  command, 
etc.,  and  then  it  is  in  the  Imperative  mood ;  as,  "  Sleep,  boy."  Sometimes 
the  assertion  is  not  limited  to  any  particular  subject,  and  then  it  is  said  to 
be  in  the  Infinitive,  that  is,  the  unlimited  mood;  as,  "  To  sleep." 

The  Indicative  Mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  in 
which  the  assertion  is  expressed  directly  and  without 
limitation;  as.  He  writes. 

Note.  —  The  Indicative  mood  is  also  used  in  asking  direct 
questions;  as,  Does  the  sun  shine?  Does  my  mother  love  me? 
This  is  sometimes  called  the  Interrogative  form. 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  in 
which  the  assertion  is  expressed  as  an  uncertainty;  as, 
If  he  write. 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  Subjunctive  mood  is  generally  preceded  by  a  conjunction, 
such  as  if,  though,  although,  unless,  except,  whether,  lest. 

Sometimes,  in  the  Past  Tense,  by  transposing  the  words  and  putting  the 
verb  or  a  part  of  it  before  the  nominative,  the  verb  becomes  Subjunctive 
without  the  use  of  a  preceding  conjunction.  Thus :  "  Had  I  a  book>  I  would 
study  the  lesson,"  "Were  I  sure  of  the  fact,  I  would  consent."  These 
expressions  mean,  "Ifl  had  a  book,"  "//I  were  sure  of  the  fact,"  etc. 

The  Subjunctive  mood  is  always  accompanied  by  another  verb 
in  some  other  mood.  Without  this  it  cannot  make  complete 
sense.    Thus,  "  If  he  write  carefully,  he  will  succeed." 

The  Potential  Mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
expresses  possibility,  liberty,  power,  willingness,  or  ob- 
ligation ;  as,  he  can  zvrite ;  he  may  write  ;  he  must  write. 

Note.  —  The  Potential  mood  is  also  used  in  asking  questions; 
as,  May  I  write  ?    Must  I  write  ?  etc. 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
is  used  to  command,  exhort,  entreat,  or  permit ;  as.  Write 
the  copy  according  to  the  directions;  Father,  forgive  us; 
go,  if  you  desire  it. 

The  Infinitive  Mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
is  not  limited  to  a  subject,  or  which  has  no  subject;  as, 
To  write. 

Note. — The  word  Infinitive  is  from  the  Latin  in,  not,  and 
Jinis,  end  or  limit. 

"ill.  TENSE. 

Tense  is  that  attribute  of  a  verb  by  which  it  ex- 
presses distinctions  of  Time. 

Note.  —  The  word  Tense  is  from  the  Latin  tempus,  time. 
There  are  six  Tenses,  the  Present,  the  Past,  and  the 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  69 

Future;  the  Present- Perfect,  the  Past-Perfect,  and  the 
Future-Perfect. 

The  Present,  Past,  and  Future  are  called  Primary 
Tenses ;  The  Present-Perfect,  Past-Perfect,  and  Future- 
Perfect  are  called  Secondary  Tenses. 

The  names  originally  given  to  the  Tenses,  in  works  on  English  Gram- 
mar, were  taken  from  the  Latin  Grammar,  and  were  as  follows : 
Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  First  Future,  Second  Future.  Two 
of  these  terms,  namely,  Imperfect  and  Perfect,  which  answered  well  enough 
for  the  Latin,  have  been  found  inconvenient  and  confusing,  as  applied  to 
the  English,  and  are  now  pretty  generally  abandoned. 

The  Latin  Imperfect  expressed  an  idea  for  which  our  only  English  repre- 
sentative is  a  compound,  known  as  the  Progressive  Form,  while  the  Latin 
Perfect  expressed  the  two  ideas  which  in  English  were  called  Imperfect  and 
Perfect.  Thus,  the  Latin  Imperfect,  scribebam,  meant  what  we  express  by 
the  Progressive  form,  I  toaa  writing.  This  Progressive  form  in  English 
is  not  limited,  as  it  is  in  the  Latin,  to  a  single  tense,  but  runs  through  the 
whole  verb  :  I  am  writing,  I  was  writing,  I  shall  be  writing,  etc.  Again, 
the  Latin  Perfect,  ecripai,  expressed  two  distinct  ideas,  I  wrote,  and  F  have 
written,  which  in  the  old  English  grammars  were  called  respectively  the  Im- 
perfect and  the  Perfect  teuses.  Inevitable  confusion  was  the  result  of  this 
nomenclature. 

In  adapting  the  nomenclature  of  the  Tenses  in  English  to  the  actual 
forms  and  meanings,  we  observe  that  there  are  three  natural  and  primary 
divisions  of  time,  the  Present,  the  Past,  and  the  Future,  giving  rise  to  the 
three  primary  Tenses,  as  represented  by  I  write,  I  wrote,  I  shall  write;  and 
to  each  of  these  is  joined  a  secondary  Tense,  represented  severally  by  I  have 
written,  I  had  written,  I  shall  have  written,  and  each  expressing,  in  addition 
to  the  time  of  its  primary  tense,  the  idea  of  completed  action. 

The  Present  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
denotes  simply  present  time ;  as,  I  write. 

Note  1.  —  The  Present  Tense  often  expresses  what  is  habitual, 
universal,  or  permanent,  as,  "  The  sun  gives  light  by  day,  the 
moon  by  night ; "  "  Charity  thinketh  no  evil." 

Note  2.  —  When  preceded  by  certain  conjunctions,  such  as, 
when,  after,  as  soon  as,  etc.,  the  Present  Tense  sometimes  conveys 
the  idea  of  that  which  is  yet  future ;  as,  "  He  will  go  as  soon 
as  he  is  ready." 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  Past  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which  de- 
notes simply  past  time ;  as,  I  wrote. 

Note.  —  This  Tense  was  formerly  called  the  Imperfect  Tense. 

The  Future  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
denotes  simply  future  time;  as,  I  shall  write. 

The  Present-Perfect  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  denotes  what  is  past  and  finished,  but  which  is  con- 
nected also  with  the  present  time ;  as,  I  have  written. 

The  Present- Perfect  expresses  what  continues  to  the  present  time  in  its 
consequences,  although  we  know  that  the  period  of  the  action  was  completed 
long  ago ;  as,  "  Cicero  has  written  orations."  We  cannot  in  like  manner 
say,  **  Cicero  has  written  poems."  His  poems  are  lost,  his  orations  still  ex- 
ist. Cicero,  thepoet,  perished  long  since,  but  Cicero,  the  orator,  is  still  ex- 
tant, and  may  be  conceived  as  existing  and  acting  in  a  period  extending 
down  to  the  present  moment.  For  the  same  reason,  we  cannot  say,  ''  The 
Druids  have  claimed  great  powers,"  for  they  were  long  since  extinct,  and 
they  have  left  no  writing  or  other  instrument  in  which  such  claim  can  be 
conceived  as  now  set  forth.  We  may,  however,  say,  "  Mahomet  has  claimed 
great  powers,"  for  the  claim  still  exists  in  the  Koran.  An  author  is  uni- 
versally considered  as  living  while  his  writings  live.  Hence  he  may  be 
considered  as  having  done  a  thing  in  a  period  of  time  not  yet  expired. 

Note.  —  When  preceded  by  certain  conjunctions,  such  as 
when,  after,  as  soon  as,  etc.,  the  Present-Perfect  Tense,  like  the 
Present,  often  denotes  something  yet  to  come;  as,  "When  I 
have  finished  my  letter,  I  will  attend  to  your  request." 

The  Past-Perfect  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  denotes  what  was  past  and  finished,  before  some 
other  event  which  is  also  past;  as,  I  had  written  the 
letter,  before  it  Avas  called  for. 

The  Future-Perfect  Tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  denotes  a  future  time  prior  to  some  other  time 
which  is  itself  future ;  as,  I  sh'all  ham  written  the  letter 
before  it  will  be  called  for. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  61 

Remarks  on  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 

1.  The  Number  of  the  Tenses  in  the  Different  Moods.  —  The  In- 
dicative Mood  has  all  six  of  the  tenses;  the  Subjunctive  has  two,  the 
Present  and  the  Past;  the  Potential  has  four,  the  Present,  the  Past,  the 
Present- Perfect, and  the  Past-Perfect;  the  Imperative  has  only  the  Present; 
and  the  Infinitive  has  the  Present  and  the  Present-Perfect. 

2.  The  Tense,  Person,  and  Number  of  the  Imperative  Mood.  —  A 
command,  an  exhortation,  or  an  entreaty,  is  necessarily  a  present  act.  The 
Imperative  mood,  therefore,  is  always  in  the  Present  Tense,  The  command, 
exhortation,  or  entreaty,  being  spoken  to  some  party,  is  necessarily  in  the 
Second  Person.  It  will  be  Singular  or  Plural  according  to  circumstances, 
as  its  nominative  is  usually  either  thou,  or  you,  understood.  Thus,  "Sit 
still,"  if  addressed  to  one  person,  is  Singular,  and  means,  "  Sit  thou  still ;" 
if  addressed  to  more  than  one,  it  is  Plural,  and  means,  "  Sit  you  still." 
Whether  the  nominative  to  the  Imperative  mood  is  thou  understood,  or  you, 
must  be  learned,  in  each  particular  case,  from  other  words  in  the  sentence. 
"Brethren,  pray  for  us."  Here,  the  word  ** brethren"  shows  that  more 
than  one  are  addressed.  Therefore,  the  verb  is  plural,  and  its  nominative 
is  "  you  "  understood.  "  Father,  forgive  them."  Here,  the  word  "  Father  " 
shows  that  only  one  is  addressed.  The  verb,  therefore,  is  singular,  and  its 
nominative  is  *'  thou  "  understood. 

Formerly,  the  nominative  of  the  Imperative  mood  was  sometimes  ex- 
pressed; as,  "Sit ye  here,  while  I  go  and  pray  yonder;"  "Sit  thou  on  my 
right  hand." 

3.  The  Tenses  of  the  Potential  and  Subjunctive  Moods.  —  The  Ten- 
ses in  the  Subjunctive  and  Potential  moods  are  used  with  less  precision 
than  in  the  Indicative.  This  arises  in  part  from  the  meaning  of  some  of 
the  auxiliaries  and  conjunctions,  which  modify  the  time  expressed  in  the 
affirnvition  ;  and  in  part  from  mere  usage,  of  which  no  other  account  can  be 
given,  than  that  the  particular  form  docs  in  fact  convey  a  certain  idea  of 
time.  Still,  in  very  many  cases,  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  and  Po- 
tential moods  express  the  same  distinctions  of  time  as  the  tenses  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Indicative.  It  has  not  been  thought  expedient,  there- 
fore, to  change  the  names  of  the  tenses,  or  to  invent  new  names,  to  suit 
every  change  of  meaning  produced  by  custom  or  by  particular  combination 
of  words,  but  to  name  the  tense  in  every  case  by  its  form. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  If  he  continue  impenitent,  he  will  perish,"  the 
accompanying  words  show  that  the  meaning  of  "continue"  is  future, 
although  its  form  is  that  of  the  present.  It  is  probably  only  an  abbrevia- 
tion for  "shall  continue."  So,  also,  in  the  sentence,  "If  I  had  the  money, 
I  would  pay  you,"  had  undoubtedly  expresses  present  time,  not  past;  still, 
it  has  the  form  of  the  past,  and  should  be  called  accordingly.  Thus,  also, 
the  auxiliaries  might,  could,  would,  and  should,  arc  often  used  as  expressing 
the  primary  meaning  of  these  words,  that  is,  simply  possibility,  liberty, 
6 


62  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

willingness,  or  obligation,  without  distinguishing  the  time,  or,  rather, 
leaving  the  time  to  be  determined  by  the  other  words  in  the  sentence. 
They  may  therefore  be  used  with  equal  propriety,  whether  the  meaning  is 
present,  past,  or  future.  Thus,  "  He  could  do  it  now,  if  he  would  "  (Pres- 
ent) ;  "  He  could  not  do  it  yesterday,  because  his  father  would  not  let  him  " 
(Past) ;  "  He  could  do  it  to-morrow,  if  his  father  would  let  him  "  (Future). 

4.  Peculiar  use  of  the  Verbs  To  Have  and  To  Be.  — There  is  a 
peculiar  usage  of  to  have  and  to  be  that  needs  to  bo  noted.  Were  is  often 
used  with  a  potential  meaning,  or  in  the  sense  of  loould  be ;  thus,  "I  were 
an  idiot,  thus  to  speak,"  that  is,  "  I  would  be  an  idiot,"  etc.  In  like  man- 
ner, had  is  used  in  the  sense  of  woidd  have;  thus,  "It  had  been  good  for 
that  man  if  he  had  never  been  born,"  that  is,  "  It  would  have  been 
good,"  etc. 

There  is  another  use  of  had  still  more  remarkable.  It  is  where  had  bears 
the  meaning  simply  of  woidd;  as,  "  I  had  as  lief  not  be,  as  live  to  be,"  etc. 


IV.  PARTICIPLES. 

A  Participle  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which  partakes 
of  the  nature  both  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective. 

Note.  —  The  word  Participle  is  from  the  Latin  particeps,  par- 
taker of. 

Nature  of  tlie  Participles.  —  The  Participles  contain  an  aflBrmation  in 
the  form  of  a  supposition,  or  in  a  kind  of  incomplete  or  suspended  state. 
Thus,  "  The  man  having  finished  his  letter  will  carry  it  to  the  post-office." 
Here,  the  participle  "  having  finished  "  contains  precisely  the  same  meaning 
that  would  have  been  conveyed  by  the  expression,  "when  he  has  finished." 
It  is  the  affirmation  of  the  verb  subject  to  some  limitation,  or  in  a  state  of 
suspense.  The  participles  also  express  distinctions  of  time,  which  is  another 
of  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  verb.  Hence  they  are,  by  almost  common 
consent,  considered  parts  df  the  verb.  They  partake  also  of  the  nature  of 
the  adjective,  inasmuch  as  they  are  joined  to  a  noun  in  construction,  in  the 
same  manner  as  an  adjective  is. 

The  Participles  are  three,  the  Present,  the  Past  or 
Perfect,  and  the  Compound-Perfect. 

The  Present  Participle  denotes  that  which  is  now  in 
progress;  as,  goings  being j  livingy  working j  etc.  The 
Present  participles  all  end  in  ing. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  63 

The  Past  or  Perfect  Participle  denotes  that  which 
is  complete  or  finished;  as,  written^  stolen,  added. 

The  Compound -Perfect  Participle  denotes  that 
which  is  finished  before  something  else  mentioned ;  as, 
having  written j  having  stolen ,  having  added. 

Many-mistakes  have  arisen  from  supposing  the  English  participles  to  cor- 
respond, more  nearly  than  they  in  truth  do,  to  the  Latin  participles.  In 
Latin,  excepting  in  deponent  verbs,  the  Present  participle  is  always  active, 
the  Past  always  passive.  Hence,  some  grammarians  assume  the  same  to 
bo  always  true  in  English.  They  take  for  granted  that  the  participle  in  ing 
is  essentially  and  necessarily  active,  and  that  the  participle  in  ed  is  essen- 
tially and  necessarily  passive.     Neither  of  these  is  true. 

The  Past  participle  is  extensively  used  in  making  the  compound  forms 
of  the  active  voice.  When  we  analyze  one  of  these  compound  expressions, 
as  for  instance,  he  had  concealed,  we  call  had  the  auxiliary,  and  con- 
cealed the  past  participle.  But  the  force  of  the  participle  in  this  combina- 
tion is  different  from  what  it  is  when  found  in  the  passive  voice,  or  when 
standing  alone.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  had  a  dagger  concealed  under 
his  cloak,"  concealed  is  passive,  signifying  being  concealed  ;  but  in  the  former 
combination,  it  goes  to  make  up  a  form  the  force  of  which  is  active.  This 
is  obvious  the  moment  we  attempt  to  translate  the  two  expressions  into  any 
language  where  the  difference  is  distinguished  by  a  difference  of  termination. 
Thus,  in  Latin,  "He  had  concealed  the  dagger,"  would  be  "pugionem  ahdi~ 
derat ;  "  but,  "  He  had  the  dagger  concealed,"  would  be  " pugionem  ahditnm 
hahnit."  It  should  bo  remarked,  however,  that  this  participle  in  the  active 
is  found  only  in  combination.  Whenever  it  stands  alone,  to  be  parsed  as  a 
participle,  it  is  passive. 

A  usage  similar  in  some  respects  prevails  in  regard  to  the  Present  parti- 
ciple in  iug.  When  it  stands  by  itself,  as  a  participle,  it  is  invariably  active. 
But  in  combination,  in  making  what  is  called  the  Progressive  Form  of  the 
verb,  it  is  not  invariably  active;  as,  in  the  phrase,  "  The  house  is  building." 
I  know  the  correctness  of  this  mode  of  expression  has  lately  been  very  much 
assailed,  and  an  attempt,  to  some  extent  successful,  has  been  made  to  intro- 
duce the  form  "  is  being  built."  But,  in  the  first  place,  the  old  mode  of  ex- 
pression is  a  well  established  usage  of  the  language,  being  found  in  our  best 
and  most  correct  writers.  Secondly,  the  same  reasoning  which  has  led  to  the 
expression  "  is  being  built,"  would  lead  equally  to  such  cumbersome  forms  as 
"was  being  built,"  "has  been  being  built,"  "had  been  being  built,"  "shall 
be  being  built,"  "shall  have  been  being  built,"  "might  have  been  being 
built,"  etc.  Thirdly,  the  same  mode  of  proceeding,  which  requires  us  in  this 
case  to  deny  any  force  to  usage,  and  to  consider  the  termination  ing  always 
active,  because  it  is  generally  so,  would  lead,  if  carried  out,  to  still  wider  con- 


64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

sequences.  For  instance,  when  we  say, "  The  house  is  building,"  the  advocates 
of  the  new  theory  ask,  "  building  what  ?  "  We  might  ask  in  turn,  when  you 
say,  "  Wheat  sells  well,"  sells  what  ?  If  usage  allows  us  to  say,  "  Wheat 
soils  at  a  dollar,"  in  a  sense  that  is  not  active,  why  may  it  not  also  allow  us 
to  say,  "Wheat  is  selling  at  a  dollar,"  in  a  sense  that  is  not  active  ? 


V.  NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

Verbs  have  variations  of  form,  to  correspond  with  the 
number  and  person  of  their  subject.  These  variations 
are  called  the  Numbers  and  Persons  of  the  verb. 

Verbs  have  two  numbers,  Singular  and  Plural ;  and 
three  Persons,  First,  Second,  and  Third.     Thus : 

Singular.  Plural. 

First  Person.        I  am.  I      First  Person.        We  are. 

/Second  Person.     Thou  art.  Second  Person.     You  are. 

2%ird  Person.      He  is.  Third  Person.      They  are. 


II.  CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  divided  into  the  following  classes :  Trans- 
itive and  Intransitive  ;  Regular  and  Irregular  ; 
Impersonal,  Defective,  and  Auxiliary. 

I.  TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE. 

A  Transitive  Verb  is  one  which  requires  an  objective 
case  to  complete  the  meaning ;  as,  James  writes  a  letter. 

An  Intransitive  Verb  is  one  which  does  not  require 
an  objective  case  to  complete  the  meaning;  as,  John 
sleeps. 

Explanation.  —  In  the  sentences,  "James  touched  Pefer," 
"  James  touched  him"  if  the  object  is  left  out,  and  we  say  simply 
"  James  touched ,"  the  meaning  is  incomplete. 

Note. —  The  word  Transitive  is  from  the  Latin  trans,  across, 
over  to,  and  ire,  itum,  to  go. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  65 

Remarks  on  Transitive  and   Intransitive  Verbs. 

1.  Many  verbs  are  used  either  transitively  or  intransitively ;  as, 
"  He  reads  well,"  "  He  reads  a  book." 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  are  not  used  in  the  Passive  Voice :  thus,  we 
may  say  to  laugh,  but  not  to  be  laughed. 

3.  When  verbs  usually  intransitive  are  followed  by  certain  prep- 
ositions, the  verb  and  preposition  sometimes  form  a  kind  of  com- 
pound verb,  which  is  transitive,  and  admits  of  a  passive  voice: 
thus,  we  say  to  laugh  at  a  person  (Act.);  to  be  laughed  at  by 
him,  (Pass.) 

4.  Verbs  usually  intransitive  sometimes  take  after  them  an  ob- 
jective of  kindred  signification.  In  that  case  they  are  transitive, 
and  admit  of  a  passive  voice ;  as,  "  I  run  a  race,"  "  A  race  is 
run." 

5.  Transitive  verbs  in  English  are  sometimes  used  without 
an  objective  case,  in  a  sense  between  the  active  and  passive 
voices ;  as,  /  taste  the  apple ;  the  apple  is  tasted  by  me ;  the  apple 
tastes  sweet. 

There  are  two  classes  of  verbs  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other,  viz. : 
Those  which  do,  and  those  which  do  not,  require  an  objective  case  in  order 
to  complete  the  meaning.  The  terms  active  and  neuter,  formerly  used  to 
express  this  distinction,  are  now  generally  abandoned.  A  strong  objection 
to  them  was,  that,  in  many  verbs  which  require  an  objective  case,  it  is  at 
least  doubtful  whether  any  action,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  term,  takes 
place ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  a  large  proportion  of  the  verbs  called  neuter, 
and  which,  by  the  definition,  ought  to  express  no  action,  do  yet  in  fact 
express  action  in  the  highest  degree,  as,  to  run,  to  walk,  to  sioim,  etc.  An- 
other and  still  stronger  objection  was  that  the  terms  active  and  neuter,  as 
applied  to  verbs,  produced  confusion  and  doubt  about  the  distinctions  of 
active  and  passive,  as  applied  to  Voice.  It  needs  no  argument  to  prove  that 
/  am  struck  is  just  as  really  a  modification  of  to  strike,  as  /  haife  struck  is  ; 
and  yet,  under  the  old  classification  of  active,  passive,  and  neuter,  the  pupil 
was  taught  to  consider  these  forms  as  two  verbs  belonging  to  different 
classes.  /  have  struck,  for  instance,  was  called  an  active  verb ;  /  am  struck, 
a  passive  verb ;  and  I  walk,  a  neuter  verb.  Under  the  present  arrangement, 
the  terms  Active  and  Passive  express  a  distinction,  not  of  verbs,  but  o^: 
Voice.  The  active  voice  of  a  verb  is  distinguished  from  its  passive  voice, 
just  as  one  of  its  moods  or  tenses  is  distinguished  from  any  other  mood  or 
tense.  There  would  seem  to  be  no  more  reason  for  dividing  verbs  into 
active  and  passive  verbs,  than  for  dividing  them  into  present  verbs,  past 
verbs,  indicative  verbs,  potential  verbs,  etc. 
6*  E 


66  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Verbs  may  indeed  be  divided  into  those  whicb  express  action,  and  those 
•which  do  not  express  action.  But  the  number  of  the  latter  will  be  very 
small,  including  the  verbs  to  be,  to  exist,  and  some  few  others ;  and  the  dis- 
tinction, when  conceded,  will  be  of  no  available  use  for  any  of  the  prac- 
tical purposes  of  grammar.  Some  verbs  will  be  found  requiring  an  objec- 
tive case,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  perceive  any  action,  while  others  express- 
ing intense  activity  will  be  found  without  an  objective  case. 

The  terms  Transitive  and  Intransitive  have  been  used,  because  in  very 
many,  perhaps  a  majority,  of  the  verbs  which  take  an  objective  case,  some 
action  may  be  conceived  as  passing  from  the  agent  to  the  object;  as,  James 
strikes  the  table.  Here,  the  act  of  striking  passes  from  the  agent,  James,  to 
the  object,  which  is  the  table.  There  are  many  cases,  however,  in  which 
such  a  transition  cannot  readily  be  traced ;  as,  he  enjoys  repose.  Still,  the 
terms  seem  the  least  objectionable  that  have  yet  been  proposed,  especially 
if  limited  by  their  definition  to  the  classification  really  meant,  viz. :  to 

VERBS  WHICH  DO,  AND  THOSE  WHICH  DO  NOT,  REQUIRE  AN  OBJECTIVE  CASE. 
II.  REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

A  Regular  Verb  is  one  that  forms  its  Past  Tense  and 
Past  Participle  by  the  addition  of  ed  to  its  present  tense  ; 
as,  Present,  love;  Past,  loved;  Past  Participle,  loved. 

Note. — In  the  case  of  Regular  Verbs  ending  in  e,  the  e  final  of  the  verb 
is  dropped  on  taking  the  suSix  ed.     (See  Rule  II,  Part  I,  page  17.) 

An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  Past 
Tense  and  Past  Participle  by  the  addition  of  ed  to  its 
present  tense ;  as,  Present,  write  ;  Past,  wrote ;  Past  Par- 
ticiple, written. 

The  Verbs  now  called  Irregular  are  in  fact  the  remains  of  the  original 
and  oldest  form  of  the  English  verb,  that  known  as  the  Strong  Conjugation. 
It  was  formed  mainly  by  internal  changes  in  the  stem  of  the  word,  as  drive 
drove,  sing  sang,  steal  stole,  rather  than  by  a  suffix.  In  like  manner,  the 
few  nouns  said  to  be  irregular,  as  man  men,  tooth  teeth,  etc.,  are  the  remains 
of  the  earliest  mode  of  forming  the  plural. 

Some  of  the  verbs  called  Irregular  are  really  parts  of  different  defective 
verbs,  put  together  to  make  one  whole.  Thus,  go  and  gone  are  the  Present 
and  Participle  of  a  verb  whose  Past  tense  has  become  obsolete,  while  went 
is  the  Past  tense  of  another  verb  of  like  meaning.  In  like  manner,  am, 
was,  been,  are  severally  parts  of  three  distinct  verbs,  each  wanting  its  other 
parts,  and  each  expressing  the  common  idea  of  existence. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 


67 


The  Irregular  Verbs. 


PrtMmt. 

Past. 

Past  Pari. 

Abide, 

abode. 

abode. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Arise, 

arose. 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  awaked, 

awaked. 

Bear  [to  bring  forth 

),bore,  bare. 

born. 

Bear  (^0  carry), 

bore. 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat. 

beat,  beaten. 

Begin, 

began. 

begun. 

Bend, 

bended,  bent. 

bended,  bent. 

Bereave, 

bereaved,  bereft. 

bereaved,  bereft. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

Bestride, 

bestrid,  bestrode, 

bestrid,  bestridden, 

Betide, 

betid,  betided. 

betid. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade. 

bid,  bidden. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew. 

blown. 

Break, 

broke. 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought. 

brought. 

Build, 

built,  builded, 

built,  builded. 

Burn, 

burned,  burnt, 

burned,  burnt. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought. 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  catched. 

caught,  catched. 

Chide, 

chid. 

chid,  chidden. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen,  chose. 

Cleave  [to  split), 

cleft,  clove. 

cleft,  cloven. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Clothe, 

clothed,  clad, 

clothed,  clad. 

Come, 

came. 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept. 

Crow, 

crew,  crowed. 

crowed. 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Dare  [to  venture), 

dared,  durst. 

dared. 

68 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


PresetU. 

Fast. 

Past  Part. 

Deal, 

dealed,  dealt. 

dealed,  dealt. 

r>ig, 

dug,  digged, 

dug,  digged. 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Dream, 

dreamed 

,  dreamt. 

dreamed,  dreamt. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Dwell, 

dwelled. 

dwelt. 

dwelled,  dwelt.    ' 

Eat, 

eat,  ate. 

eat,  eaten. 

Fall, 

fell. 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Fight. 

fought. 

fought. 

Find, 

found. 

found. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown. 

Forsake, 

forsook. 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Get, 

got, 

got,  gotten. 

Gild, 

gilded,  gilt. 

gilded,  gilt. 

Gird, 

girded,  girt. 

girded,  girt. 

Give, 

gave. 

given. 

Go, 

went. 

gone. 

Grave, 

graved. 

graven,  graved. 

Grind, 

ground. 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

Hang, 

hanged,  hung. 

hanged,  hung. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Hear, 

heard. 

heard. 

Heave, 

heaved,  '. 

hove, 

heaved. 

Hew, 

hewed. 

hewed,  hewn. 

Hide, 

hid. 

hid,  hidden. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held. 

held. 

Hurt,  . 

hurt. 

hurt. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Kneel, 

kneeled. 

knelt. 

kneeled,  knelt. 

Knit, 

knit,  knitted, 

knit,  knitted. 

ETYMOLOGY- 

-VERBS. 

Present. 

But. 

Past  Part. 

Know, 

knew. 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

laded,  laden. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Lead, 

led. 

led. 

Leave, 

left. 

left. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Let, 

let. 

let. 

Lie  [to  recline), 

lay, 

lain. 

Light, 

lighted,  lit, 

lighted,  lit. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Mean, 

meant. 

meant. 

Meet, 

met. 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

mowed,  mown. 

Pay, 

paid. 

paid. 

Pen  [to  coop), 

penned,  pent, 

penned,  pent. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Quit, 

quit,  quitted. 

quit,  quitted. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid,  ridded. 

rid,  ridded. 

Ride, 

rode. 

ridden. 

Ring, 

rang,  rung, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

rived,  riven. 

Run, 

ran,  run. 

run. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

Saw, 

sawed. 

sawed,  sawn. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Seethe, 

seethed, 

seethed,  sodden. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Shake, 

shook. 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

shaped,  shapen. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaved,  shaven. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

sheared,  shorn. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  shined. 

shone,  shined. 

69 


70 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Part. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown,  showed. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Shrink, 

shrunk. 

shrunk. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang. 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank. 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew. 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

slept. 

Slide, 

slid, 

slid,  slidden. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  slitted, 

slit,  slitted. 

Smell, 

smelled,  smelt. 

smelled,  smelt. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten,  smit. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sowed,  sown. 

Speak, 

spoke,  spake. 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped,  speeded. 

sped,  speeded. 

Spell, 

spelled,  spelt. 

spelled,  spelt. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilled,  spilt, 

spilled,  spilt. 

Spin, 

spun. 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat. 

spit. 

Split, 

split,  splitted. 

split,  splitted. 

Spoil, 

spoiled,  spoilt. 

spoiled,  spoilt. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung,  sprang. 

sprung. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Stave, 

staved,  stove. 

staved,  stove. 

Stay, 

stayed,  staid. 

stayed,  staid. 

Steal, 

stole. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Stink, 

stunk. 

stunk. 

Strew, 

strewed, 

strewed,  strewn, 

Stride, 

strid,  strode. 

strid,  stridden. 

Strike, 

struck. 

struck,  stricken. 

String, 

strung. 

strung. 

ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS. 


71 


Pretent. 

FiuL 

Peut  Part. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Swear, 

swore, 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

sweat,  sweated. 

sweat,' sweated. 

Sweep, 

swept. 

swept. 

Swell, 

swelled. 

swelled,  swollen. 

Swim, 

swam,  swum. 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught. 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore. 

torn. 

Tell, 

told. 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

thrived. 

thrived,  thriven. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trod,  trodden. 

Wax, 

waxed. 

waxed,  waxen. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove. 

woven,  wove. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

Wet, 

wet,  wetted. 

wet,  wetted. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

Work, 

worked,  wrought. 

worked,  wrought. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

III.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

An  Impersonal  Verb  is  one  which  is  never  used  ex- 
c^t  with  the  pronoun  it  for  its  subject ;  as,  "  It  snows J^ 

Note.  —  We  never  say,  "I  snow,"   "Thou  snowest,"   "He 
snows,"  etc. 


In  the  earlier  forms  of  the  English,  Impersonal  verbs  were  of  very  fre- 
quent occurrence,  as  much  so  as  in  Latin,  and  the  construction  was  precisely 
like  that  of  the  Latin  Irapersonals,  the  verb  having  no  subject,  and  the 
noun  or  pronoun  representing  the  subject  being  in  the  dative.  Of  the  once 
extensive  array  of  words  in  this  form,  all  that  now  remain  in  English  are 
the  two  compounds,  me-aeems  and  me- thinks.  In  both  these,  the  me  was 
originally  a  separate  word,  and  was  in  the  dative  case,  meaning  to  me.     The 


72  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 

thinJcs,  of  the  second  compound,  is  not,  as  it  seems  to  be,  from  the  word 
signifying  to  think,  which  was  thencan,  but  from  thincan,  which  meant  to 
seem.  The  two  compounds,  therefore,  meant  originally  precisely  the  same, 
namely,  to-me-aeema,  or,  transposing,  seems  to  vie;  and  the  exact,  literal 
equivalent  of  each,  in  the  Latin,  is  mihi  videtur. 

The  forms  in  modern  English,  which  are  called  Impersonal,  such  as  it 
snores,  it  rains,  etc.,  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  Impersonal,  as  each  has  an 
indefinite  subject  it.  The  only  strictly  Impersonal  verbs  that  we  now  havo 
are  the  two  compounds,  me-seems  and  me-thinks,  already  noticed. 

IV.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

A  Defective  Verb  is  one  that  is  not  used  in  all  the 
Moods  and  Tenses ;  as,  must,  ought,  quoth,  etc. 

V.  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

An  Auxiliary  Verb  is  one  which  helps  to  form  the 
Moods  and  Tenses  of  other  verbs. 

The  auxiliary  verbs  are,  shall,  may,  can,  must,  be,  do, 
have,  and  will. 

Remarks  on  the  Auxiliary  Verbs. - 

1.  Th§se  are  called  Auxiliary,  or  helping  verbs,  because  by  their 
help  the  other  verbs  form  most  of  their  moods  and  tenses. 

2.  Be,  do,  have,  and  sometimes  will,  are  also  used  as 
principal  verbs;  as,  they  may  be  here;  they  do  nothing;  they 
have  nothing;  they  will  it  to  be  so.  As  principal  verbs,  they 
have  all  the  moods  and  tenses  which  other  verbs  have. 

3.  Be,  as  an  Auxiliary,  is  used  in  all  its  moods,  tenses, 
numbers,  and  persons,  in  forming  the  passive  voice  of  other 
verbs ;  as,  I  am  loved,  I  was  loved,  I  have  been  loved,  etc. 

4.  Have,  do,  will,  shall,  may,  can,  as  Auxiliaries,  are  used  in 
only  two  forms,  and  must  in  only  one  form,  viz. : 

Present.    Have,    do,      will,       shall,       can,       may,       must. 
Fast.         Had,      did,     would,  should,   could,    might. 

5.  These  forms  taken  by  themselves  may  be  considered 
as  the  Present  and  Past,  but  they  do  not  always  form  the  present 
and  past  when  in  combination  with  the  other  Auxiliaries  or  with 
the  principal  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  73 

6.  Shall,  may,  can,  and  must  are  defective,  having  only  the 
tenses  given  above,  and  are  never  used  except  as  Auxiliaries. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  is  sometimes  done,  that  the  Auxil- 
iaries are  mere  inventions,  introduced  into  the  language  for  the  purpose  of 
making  out  the  necessary  forms.  There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  aux- 
iliaries were  originally  independent  verbs,  and  that  the  verbs  following  tho 
auxiliaries  were  in  the  infinitive  mood,  to  being  omitted.  "  To,"  indeed,  as  a 
sign  of  the  infinitive,  was  introduced  into  the  language  only  in  the  later 
stages  of  its  history.  Originally,  "  to  "  was  never  found  in  connection  with 
the  infinitive.  Even  now  it  is  not  so  found  after  some  verbs;  as,  "I  bade 
him  follow."  Here,  "follow"  is  recognized  as  being  in  tho  infinitive,  just 
as  much  as  "to  follow"  is  in  the  sentence,  "I  told  him  to  follow."  So  also 
"I  saw  him  (to)  follow"  "They  need  not  (to)  follow,"  etc,  Tho  auxiliary 
"shall,"  meant,  originally,  "to  be  obliged."  "  I  shall  (to)  write,"  meant, 
"  I  am  obliged  to  write."  So  long  as  "  shall "  retained  its  original  meaning 
and  force,  it  was  quite  proper  to  parse  "write"  as  being  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  as  wo  do  the  verb  "  follow  "  in  the  previous  examples.  In  like  man- 
ner, all  the  compound  tenses  may  be  analyzed.  This  analysis,  and  the 
study  of  tho  proper  force  of  the  auxiliaries  by  themselves,  are  important  as 
affording  the  best  clue  to  tho  true  meaning  and  use  of  the  various  moods 
and  tenses. 

It  would  be  an  equal  mistake,  on  the  other  hand,  because  these  compound 
forms  may  be  thus  analyzed  and  traced  to  original  independent  elements  in 
the  language,  to  deny  their  present  existence  as  compounds,  and  to  assert, 
as  some  recent  grammarians  have  done,  that  there  are  in  English  but  two 
tenses,  the  present  and  the  past.  As  in  chemistry,  an  alkali  and  an  acid, 
when  combined,  form  a  compound  with  properties  not  found  in  either  of 
the  ingredients,  so  in  language,  particular  combinations  of  words  acquire 
by  use  new  meanings  not  possessed  by  the  words  taken  singly.  The  phrase 
"I  shall  be"  meant,  originally,  "I  am  obliged  to  be,"  and  the  connection 
between  these  two  ideas  may  be  very  ingeniously  and  truly  traced.  But 
the  phrase  now  expresses  simply  and  absolutely  the  idea  oi  futurity,  with- 
out any  sort  of  obligation.  Tho  man  who  says,  "  I  shall  he  in  New  York  to- 
morrow," conveys  by  the  words  shall  he  precisely  what  he  would  by  the 
Latin  ero.  The  former  is  just  as  much  the  future  tense  of  the  verb  to  he  as 
the  latter  is  of  tho  verb  esse.  To  parse  shall  as  a  verb  in  the  present  tense, 
and  he  in  the  infinitive,  would  be  just  as  erroneous  as  to  deny  Person  to  the 
Hebrew  verb,  because  the  forms  of  the  persons  may  be  analyzed,  and  the 
personal  pronouns  clearly  detected  in  the  terminations,  and  separated,  if 
need  be,  from  the  rest  of  the  verb. 

The  same  reasoning  will  apply  to  the  proposed  analysis  of  the  other 
compound  forms,  do  love,  did  love,  have  loved,  have  been,  etc.  The  object 
aimed  at  is  simplification.  Tho  writers  in  question  seem,  at  first  sight,  to 
7 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

accomplish  their  end,  for  they  apparently  despatch  the  whole  verb,  moods, 
tenses,  and  all,  in  a  single  sweeping  paragraph.  But  in  the  end,  the  learner 
finds  he  has  quite  as  much  to  learn  in  detached  and  unconnected  parcels,  as 
he  had  before  under  a  systematic  and  orderly  arrangement. 

III.  CONJUGATION. 
The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  orderly  arrange- 
ment of  its  voices,  moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  persons. 

Note.  —  The  verb  "  To  Be  "  is  irregular  and  intransitive,  and 
has  no  voice. 

Conjugation  of  the  verb  To  Be, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  You  are. 

3.  He  is.  3.  They  are. 

Fast  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast.  2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be.  1.  We  shall  be. 

2.  Thou  wilt  be.  2.  You  will  be. 

3.  He  will  be.  3.  They  will  be. 

Fresent- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.*  2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been. 

Fast- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS. 


76 


Future- Perfect  Tense. 

Singtdar.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  2.  You  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  3.  They  will  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be.  1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be.  2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 


Past  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  they  were. 


1.  If  I  were. 

2.  If  thou  wert. 

3.  If  he  were. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be. 

3.  He  may  be. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be. 
8.  He  might  be. 


Plural. 

1.  We  may  be. 

2.  You  may  be. 

3.  They  may  be. 

Past  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  We  might  be. 

2.  You  might  be. 

3.  They  might  be. 


Present-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been.  1.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  2.  You  may  have  been. 

3.  He  may  have  been.  3.  They  may  have  been. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been.  1.  We  might  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.        2.  You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  3.  They  might  have  been. 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

IMPEEATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be,  or  be  thou.  2.  Be,  ar  be  you. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present    To  be.  Present-Perfect.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Being.  Past  or  Perfect,    Been. 

Compound-Perfect.    Having  been. 

Remarks  on  the  Conjugation. 

1.  In  the  formation  of  the  Futures,  we  have  two  Auxiliaries, 
shall  and  will.  For  the  expression  of  simple  futurity,  we  use 
shall  in  the  First  Person,  and  will  in  the  Second  and  Third  Per- 
sons, as  given  in  the  table.  On  the  other  hand,  by  using  will  in 
the  First  Person,  and  shall  in  the  Second  and  Third  Persons,  we 
express  the  various  ideas  of  promise,  command,  obligation,  etc. 
Thus :  "  I  will  be  there  "  expresses  a  promise.  "  Thou  shalt  love 
the  Lord  thy  God "  is  a  command.  "  He  shall  do  it "  [i.  e.  I 
will  make  him)  expresses  obligation  or  necessity. 

2.  The  singular  form,  thou  art,  etc.,  is  now  used  only  in 
acts  of  worship,  or  on  other  solemn  occasions.  In  ordinary 
discourse,  in  addressing  one  person,  we  say  you  are,  you  were^  etc., 
the  meaning  being  singular,  but  the  form  plural. 

3.  In  the  third  person,  the  nominative  of  the  verb  may 
be  any  of  the  personal  pronouns,  he,  she,  it,  any  of  the  relative 
pronouns,  who,  which,  what,  that,  etc.,  or  any  noun.  For  conve- 
nience of  recitation,  one  nominative  only  is  inserted. 

4.  In  the  Potential  mood  the  auxiliary  may  be. 
In  the  Present  tense,  may,  can,  or  must ; 

In  the  Past  tense,  might,  could,  would,  or  should; 
In  the  Present-Perfect  tense,  may  have,  can  have,  or  must  have; 
In  the  Past-Perfect  tense,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have^ 
or  should  have. 

5.  In  conjugating  the  Subjunctive  mood,  the  conjunction  be- 
fore the  verb  may  be  if,  though,  although,  unless,  except,  whether, 
lesty  etc.    For  convenience  in  recitation,  one  conjunction  only  is 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  77 

used.  It  may  also  be  conjugated  in  the  Past  tense  by  omitting 
the  conjunction  and  transposing  the  nominative  and  verb.  Thus: 
were  I,  wert  thou,  were  he ;  were  we,  were  you,  were  they. 

By  putting  before  a  verb  any  conjunction  expressing  doubt  or  contin- 
gency, a  form  may  be  created  which  by  some  is  called  the  Subjunctive  mood. 
Such  a  form,  requiring  merely  the  prefixing  of  the  conjunction,  and  involv- 
ing no  change  in  the  verb  itself,  may  be  continued  through  all  the  tenses  of 
the  Indicative,  and  even  through  the  tenses  of  the  Potential ;  Thus :  Jnd. 
If  I  am,  if  I  was,  if  I  shall  be,  if  I  have  been,  if  I  had  been,  if  I  shall  have 
been ;  Pot.  If  I  may  be,  if  I  might  be,  if  I  may  have  been,  if  I  might  have 
been.  This  form,  for  the  tenses  at  least  of  the  Indicative,  is  by  some  called 
the  Subjunctive  mood.  The  propriety  of  this  term  is  questionable.  It  seems 
best  to  limit  the  mood  to  those  two  tenses,  the  Present  and  the  Past,  in 
which  there  is  some  difference  of  form  in  the  verb  itself. 

It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  the  form  if  I  am,  cannot  be  Indicative, 
because  it  expresses  doubt  or  contingency,  instead  of  merely  indicating  or 
declaring.  But  it  should  be  noticed,  the  doubt  or  contingency  is  expressed 
not  by  the  verb,  I  am,  but  by  the  conjunction  if.  The  definition  of  the 
Indicative  refers  solely  to  the  "  form  of  the  verb  "  itself,  not  to  any  of  the 
circumstances  that  may  be  thrown  around  it  by  the  interposition  of  other 
words. 

Exercises.  —  Conjugate  the  verb  "  to  be  "  through  the  Indica- 
tive mood,  using  "she"  in  the  third  person  singular. 

Conjugate  the  verb  through  the  Indicative  mood,  using  "  it " 
in  the  third  person  singular. 

Conjugate  the  verb  through  the  Indicative  mood,  using  "  the 
man"  for  the  subject  in  the  singular,  and  "the  men"  for  the 
subject  in  the  plural. 

Conjugate  the  verb  through  the  Subjunctive  mood,  using 
"though  "instead  of  "if." 

Conjugate  it  in  like  manner,  using  any  of  the  other  conjunc- 
tions named. 

Conjugate  it  in  the  Potential  mood.  Present  tense,  using  "  can  " 
instead  of  "  may."    Conjugate  it,  using  "  must." 

Conjugate  it  in  the  Past  tense,  using  "  could ; "  using  "  would ; " 
using  "should." 

Conjugate  it  in  the  Present- Perfect  tense,  using  "  can  have ; " 
using  "  must  have." 

Conjugate  it  in  the  Past-Perfect  tense,  using  "could  have;" 
using  "  would  have ; "  using  "  should  have." 
7* 


78 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

1.  I  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest. 

3.  He  loves. 


Conjugation  of  the  verb  To  Love. 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  We  love. 

2.  You  love. 

3.  They  love. 


Singular. 

1.  I  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst. 

3.  He  loved. 


Past  Tense. 


Plural. 

1.  We  loved. 

2.  You  loved. 

3.  They  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  love. 

2.  Thou  wilt  love. 

3.  He  will  love. 


Future  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  We  shall  love. 

2.  You  will  love. 

3.  They  will  love. 


Present-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved.  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

Future- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  2.  You  will  have  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  loved.  3.  They  will  have  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS, 


79 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singtdar. 

If  I  love. 
If  thou  love. 
If  he  love. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 
■3.  If  they  love. 

Past  Tense. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Sinjular. 

If  I  loved. 
If  thou  loved, 
If  he  loved. 

Plural 

1.  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  they  loved. 

Singtilar. 

1.  I  may  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  love. 

3.  He  may  love. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst  love. 

3.  He  might  love. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 


1. 


Plural. 

We  may  love. 

2.  You  may  love. 

3.  They  may  love. 


Past  Tense. 


Plural 

1.  We  might  love. 

2.  You  might  love. 
8.  They  might  love. 


Present- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  loved.  1.  We  may  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved.  2.  You  may  have  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  loved.  3.  They  may  have  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved 

3.  He  might  have  loved. 


Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Plural 

1.  We  might  have  loved. 

2.  You  might  have  loved. 

3.  They  might  have  loved. 


80  ENGLISH    GH'AMMAR. 

IMPEKATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Love,  or  love  thou.  Love,  or  love  you. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.    To  love.  Present- Perfect.    To  have  loved. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present.    Loving.  Past  or  Perfect.    Loved. 

Compound- Perfect.        Having  loved. 

II.    PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Note.  —  The  Passive  Voice  of  a  verb  is  formed  by  placing 
before  its  Past  Participle  the  various  moods,  tenses,  numbers, 
and  persons  of  the  verb  To  be. 

Intransitive  Verbs  have  no  Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved.  1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  You  are  loved. 

3.  He  is  loved.  3.  They  are  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved.  1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  He  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved.  - 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved.  1.  We  shall  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved.  2.  You  will  be  loved. 

3.  He  will  be  loved.  3.  They  will  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  81 

Present- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  has  been  loved.  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pad-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.  2.  You  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

Future- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved.     2.  You  will  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved.        3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved.  1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2. 4f  thou  be  loved.  2.  If  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved.  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved.  2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved.  1.  We  may  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved.  2.  You  may  be  loved. 

3.  He  may  be  loved.  3.  They  may  be  loved. 


82  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be  loved.  1.  We  might  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved.  2.  You  might  be  loved. 

3.  He  might  be  loved.  8.  They  might  be  loved. 

Present- Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved.  1.  We  may  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved.  2.  You  may  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved.       3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved.         1.  We  might  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved.  2.  You  might  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved.      3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
2.  Be  loved,  or  be  thou  loved.  2.  Be  loved,  or  be  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.    To  be  loved.  Present- Perfect.    To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Being  loved.  Past  or  Perfect.    Loved. 

Compound- Perfect.    Having  been  loved. 

III.   PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 

The  Progressive  Form  of  a  verb  is  that  which  repre- 
sents the  action  as  in  progress,  or  incomplete. 

Note.  —  This  is  called  sometimes  the  Progressive  form,  because 
it  represents  the  action  as  still  in  progress;  sometimes,  the  Im- 
perfect form,  because  action  in  progress  is  necessarily  incomplete; 
and  sometimes  the  Definite  form,  because  it  marks  the  time  of 
the  action  in  every  case  with  perfect  definiteness  and  precision. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  83 

The  Progressive  form  of  any  verb  is  made  by  placing  before  its 
Present  Participle  the  various  moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  per- 
sons of  the  verb  to  be.  Thus:  I  am  writing,  I  was  writing,  I 
shall  be  writing,  etc.  It  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  cum- 
ber the  text-book  by  inserting  these  forms  in  full.  Any  pupil 
can  form  them  at  will  who  has  learned  the  conjugation  of  the 
verb  to  be. 

Exercises  in  the  Progressive  Form. 

Conjugate  the  verb  "sing"  through  all  the  tenses  of  the  In- 
dicative mood,  in  the  Progressive  form. 

Conjugate  "  know  "  through  the  Subjunctive  mood,  Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate  "  write "  through  the  Potential  mood,  Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate  "stand"  through  the  Imperative  and  Infinitive 
moods,  Progressive  form. 

Remark.  —  A  verb  in  the  Progressive  form  is  always  in  the 
Active  voice. 

IV.  EMPHATIC  FORM. 

The  Emphatic  Form  of  a  verb  is  that  in  which  the 
assertion  is  expressed  with  emphasis. 

The  Emphatic  Form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  placing  before  it  the 
verb  cfo  as  an  auxiliary. 

The  Emphatic  Form  is  used  only  in  the  Present  and  Past 
tenses  of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive  moods.  Active  voice, 
and  in  the  Imperative  mood,  both  Active  and  Passive. 

Conjugation  of  the  verb  To  Love,  in  the  Emphatic 
Form. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

/Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  do  love.  1.  We  do  love. 

2.  Thou  dost  love.  2.  You  do  love. 

3.  He  does  love,  3.  They  do  lov& 


84  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB. 


Fast  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural 

1. 

I  did  love. 

1.  We  did  love. 

2. 

Thou  didst  love. 

2.  You  did  love. 

3. 

He  did  love. 

3.  They  did  love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

If  I  do  love. 

1.  If  we  do  love. 

2. 

If  thou  do  love. 

2.  If  you  do  love. 

3. 

If  he  do  love. 

3.  If  they  do  love. 
Past  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

If  I  did  love. 

1.  If  we  did  love. 

2. 

If  thou  did  love. 

2.  If  you  did  love. 

3. 

If  he  did  love. 

3.  If  they  did  love. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Active  —  Present  Tense. 
Singular.    Do  (thou)  love.  Plural.    Do  (you)  love. 

Passive  —  Present  Tense. 
Singular.     Do  (thou)  be  loved.     Plural.     Do  (you)  be  loved. 

Parsing  Exercises.  —  Sentence. — "James  writes  a  letter." 
Parse  "  writes." 

Model. —  "  Writes  "  (1.)  is  a  verb,  it  contains  an  assertion  ;  (2.) 
transitive,  it  requires  an  objective  case  after  it;  (3.)  irregular,  it 
does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  the  addition  of  o? 
or  ed  (Pres.  write,  Past,  wrote,  Past  P.  written) ;  (4.)  active  voice,  it 
denotes  that  the  nominative  "  James"  acts  or  does  the  thing  men- 
tioned; (5.)  indicative  mood,  the  assertion  is  expressed  directly 
and  without  limitation  ;  (6. )  present  tense,  it  denotes  present  time ; 
(7.)  singular  number,  third  person  (I  write,  thou  writest,  he  writes, 
or  James  writes) ;  (8.)  and  has  for  its  subject  the  noun  James. 

Abbreviated  Model.  —  "Writes"  is  (1.)  a  verb,  (2.)  transi- 
tive, (3.)  irregular  (write,  wrote,  written),  (4.)  active  voice,  (5.) 
indicative  mood,  (6.)  present  tense,  (7.)  singular  number,  third 
person,  (8.)  and  has  for  its  subject  the  noun  James. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADVERBS.  85 

Exercises. —  Parse  all  the  Verbs  in  the  following  sentences  : 

A  witty  punster  may  aflford  amusement  to  persons,  but  amuse- 
ment is  not  the  business  of  life,  though  it  tends  ever  so  much  to 
relieve  the  mind.  Therefore,  do  not  consider  him  a  model  worthy 
of  imitation. 

My  son,  wert  thou  a  father,  thou  couldst  understand  the  feelings 
of  him  who  now  mourns  over  the  wrong  which  thou  hast  com- 
mitted. Had  I  been  thy  son,  I  think  I  would  not  only  have  been 
grieved  on  account  of  that  which  I  had  done,  but  also  would  have 
regretted  that  I  had  caused  sorrow  in  the  breast  of  him  who  loved 
me  so  tenderly. 

The  miser  will  will  his  property  to  those  who  will  perhaps  use 
it  for  sinful  purposes.  Had  he  had  less  avarice,  his  happiness 
would  have  been  increased.  Do  not  do  as  he  does,  lest  thou,  like 
him,  become  a  wretched  man,  and  have  to  say,  "  I  have  been 
heaping  up  riches  all  my  life,  but  I  have  not  been  increasing  my 
happiness.  Had  I  been  adding  to  the  happiness  of  others,  and 
laying  up  treasures  where  moth  and  rust  do  not  corrupt,  I  would 
have  been  employing  myself  better  and  saving  my  soul." 

If  he  acquire  riches,  they  will  corrupt  his  mind. 

Though  he  is  high,  he  hath  respect  to  the  lowly. 

Despise  not  any  condition,  lest  it  happen  to  be  thine  own. 

•VI.  ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  a  Verb,  an 
Adjective,  or  another  Adverb;  as,  He  writes  rapidly. 

Examples. —  Come  here  instantly  and  answer  me  more  respect' 
fully,  or  you  will  receive  a  very  severe  correction. 

"  Here  "  qualifies  the  verb  "  come,"  it  tells  where  you  are  to  come. 

"  Instantly  "  also  qualifies  "  come,"  it  tells  ivhen  you  are  to  come. 

"  Respectfully "  qualifies  the  verb  "  answer,"  it  tells  in  what 
manner  you  are  to  answer. 

"  More  "  qualifies  the  adverb  "respectfully,"  it  te^lls  how  respect- 
fully you  are  to  answer. 

"  Very  "  qualifies  the  adjective  "  severe,"  \l  tells  how  severe  the 
punishment  will  be. 
8 


86  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Remarks  on  Adverbs. 


1.  The  word  adverb  is  from  the  Latin  ad,  to,  and  verbum,  a 
word  or  verb,  because  the  adverb  is  regarded  mainly  as  a  word 
added  to  the  verb. 

2.  Adverbs  are  not  necessary  parts  of  speech,  as  their  mean- 
ing can  always  be  expressed  by  other  parts  of  speech.  They 
generally  express  in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  require  sev- 
eral words.     Here,  for  instance,  means  "  in  this  place." 

3.  Some  of  the  adverbs  appear  to  be  formed  by  the  combi- 
nation of  two  or  more  w^ords,  which  have  gradually  coalesced 
into  one.  Thus,  bravely  is  an  abbreviation  of  brave-^iZre,  wisely 
of  wise-^i^-e,  happily  of  happy-^iX-e,  etc.  Others  again  are  com- 
posed of  nouns,  and  the  letter  a  used  for  at,  on,  etc. ;  as,  aside, 
ahead,  abroad,  ashore,  aground,  afloat. 

4.  Sometimes  several  words  are  taken  together  and  called 
an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  at  length,  in  vain,  etc.  These  ex- 
pressions are  elliptical,  and  the  ellipsis  can  almost  always  be 
supplied.  Whenever  this  can  be  done,  the  words  should  be  parsed 
separately. 

5.  Some  adverbs  perform  at  the  same  time  the  office  of 
adverbs  and  of  conjunctions;  as,  "They  will  come  when  they  are 
ready."  Here,  "  when  "  both  declares  the  time  of  the  action,  and 
so  is  an  adverb ;  and  also  connects  the  two  verbs,  and  so  is  a  con- 
junction. These  are  called,  by  some  grammarians,  conjunctive 
adverbs;  by  others,  adverbial  conjunctions.  The  most  common 
of  them  are,  when,  where,  whither,  whenever,  wherever,  then,  etc. 

6.  The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  a  mere  expletive,  with- 
out apparently  any  signification  of  its  own,  as  in  this  sentence, 
"  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John." 

7.  Some  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs,  and  some- 
times as  adjectives.  Among  these  are  the  following :  little,  less, 
least,  better,  best,  much,  more,  most,  no,  only,  well,  ill,  still,  first.  If 
any  of  these  words  qualifies  a  noun,  it  is  an  adjective ;  but,  if  it 
qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb,  then  it  is  an 
adverb. 

'     Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

Many  Adverbs  are  compared. 

Some  Adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est  to 
the  Positive ;  as,  sooUj  sooner y  soonest. 


ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS 


87 


Adverbs  ending  in  ly  are  compared  by  prefixing  more 
and  mosty  less  and  least;  as,  happily,  more  happily,  most 
happily  ;  less  happily,  least  happily. 

Irregular  Comparison. 


Posilive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

Well 

better 

best 

111 

worse 

worst 

Badly 

worse 

worst 

Much 

more 

most 

Far 

farther 

farthest, 

Classes  of  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  are  divided  into  classes,  according  to  their  significa- 
tion.   The  most  important  of  these  classes  are 

1.  Adverbs  of  Manner  or  Quality ;  as,  well,  ill,  swiftly^ 
smoothly,  truly,  with  a  great  many  others  formed  from  adjectives 
by  adding  the  termination  ly.  This  is  by  far  the  most  numerous 
class  of  adverbs. 

2.  Adverbs  of  Place;  as,  here,  there,  where,  hither,  thither, 
whither,  hence,  thence,  whence,  somewhere,  nowhere,  etc. 

3.  Adverbs  of  Time ;  as,  now,  then,  when,  ever,  never,  soon, 
often,  seldom,  lately,  etc. 

4.  Adverbs  of  Quantity ;  as,  much,  little,  sufficiently,  enough, 
scarcely,  etc. 

5.  Adverbs  of  Direction ;  as,  downward,  upward,  forward, 
backward,  homeward,  heavenward,  hitherward,  thitherward,  etc. 

6.  Adverbs  of  Number,  Order,  etc.  (including  all  those 
formed  from  the  Numeral  Adjectives) ;  bls,  first,  secondly,  thirdly, 
etc. ;  once,  twice,  thrice,  etc. ;  singly,  doubly,  triply. 

7.  Adverbs  of  Affirmation  and  Negation ;  as,  yes,  no,  verily, 
indeed,  nay,  nowise,  doubtless,  etc. 

8.  Adverbs  of  Interrogation;  as,  how,  why,  when,  where, 
whither,  whence,  etc. 

9.  Adverbs  of  Comparison ;  as,  more,  most,  less,  least,  better, 
best,  very,  exceedingly,  nearly,  almost,  etc. 

10.  Adverbs  of  Uncertainty ;  as,  perchance,  perhaps,  perad- 
vciiture. 


88  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note.  —  Adverbs  are  very  numerous.  The  above  is  not  in- 
tended as  a  complete  list  of  them,  nor  even  a  complete  classifica- 
tion. 

Parsing  Exercises.  —  Sentence.  —  "John  wrote  the  letter 
hastily.^^ 

Model.  —  "Hastily"  (1.)  is  an  adverb,  it  qualifies  the  verb 
"wrote;"  (2.)  it  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  it  tells  the  manner  in 
which  he  wrote;  (3.)  it  is  compared,  hastily,  more  hastily,  most 
hastily. 

Note.  —  When  the  adverb  does  not  admit  of  comparison,  the 
third  thing  to  say  of  it  will  be,  "  not  compared." 

Exercises.  —Parse  all  the  Adverbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

There  was  no  orator  who  spoke  more  fluently.  Thrice  was  he 
applauded.  Turn  your  eye  whither  you  would,  you  might  see 
persons  attentively  listening.  Seldom  was  such  an  attentive 
multitude  assembled  in  our  much  too  quiet  village. 

When  the  water  was  hot  enough,  he  boiled  the  herbs  in  it 
thoroughly  and  made  the  tea  sufficiently  strong. 

This  idle  boy  was  the  least  attentive  of  the  scholars,  and 
studied  least.  He  therefore  received  the  least  amount  of  benefit. 
Better  boys  will  behave  better  and  reap  a  better  reward. 

Parse  all  the  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs  in  the 
foregoing  sentences. 


3>04C 


VII.  CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  sen- 
tences, and  parts  of  sentences ;  as,  John  and  James  study ; 
John  writes  and  James  reads. 

The  following  are  the  principal  Conjunctions;  also, 
although,  and,  as,  because,  both,  but,  either,  for,  if,  lest, 
neither,  nor,  or,  since,  than,  that,  then,  therefore,  though, 
unless,  wherefore,  whether,  yet,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  CONJUNCTIONS.  89 

The  word  Conjunction  is  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and 
ywnc^MS,  joined,  because  it  joins  together. 

Some  conjunctions  are  used  in  pairs,  and  are  to  be  taken  to- 
gether in  parsing.  Such  conjunctions  are  called  Correlatives. 
The  principal  Correlative  Conjunctions  are  as  —  so,  although  — 
yet,  both— and,  either  —  or,  neither  —  nor,  whether  —  or,  if — then, 
though  —  yet. 

Some  conjunctions,  not  Correlatives,  are  yet  to  be  parsed 
together,  because  the  connection  of  the  words  or  sentences  is 
made,  not  by  any  one  of  these  conjunctions,  but  by  the  two  or 
more  taken  together.  Such  collections  of  words  are  called  Com- 
plex Conjunctions.  The  principal  Complex  Conjunctions  are  as 
if,  as  well  as,  but  that,  except  that,  forasmuch  as,  inasmuch  as,  even 
though,  etc. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  conjunctions  and  prepositions  serve 
merely  to  connect  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence  without  any  significancy  of 
their  own.  These  words  were  all  originally  other  parts  of  speech,  viz. : 
verbs,  nouns,  and  adjectives.  Most  of  them  may  be  distinctly  traced,  und 
the  meaning  of  the  original  recognized  in  the  modern  abbreviations.  Thus, 
if  is  the  imperative  of  the  Saxou  gifan,  to  give.  "  If  it  is  fair  to-morrow, 
I  will  go  out,"  means  "give  (grant)  it  to  be  fair  to-morrow,"  etc.  Still,  as 
the  original  words  from  which  the  conjunctions  and  prepositions  are  de- 
rived are  mostly  obsolete,  these  words  are  to  be  now  regarded  in  reference  to 
their  present  use,  and  not  to  their  original  character.  Thus,  to  require  a 
child  to  parse  if  as  the  imperative  of  the  verb  gifan,  to  give,  and  unless  as 
the  imperative  of  the  verb  onlesan,  to  dismiss,  would  only  serve  to  perplex 
and  embarrass.  Where,  however,  the  words  are  still  in  current  use  in  the 
language,  the  case  is  different,  and  it  becomes  extremely  doubtful  whether 
they  ought  to  be  considered  as  prepositions  and  conjunctions,  or  whether 
they  ought  not  to  be  classed  among  other  parts  of  speech  according  to  their 
obvious  meaning.  Examples  of  this  sort  are,  except,  excepting,  regarding, 
touching,  respecting,  notwithstanding,  etc. 


Parsing  Exercises.  —  Sentence. — "  John  a7id  James  are 
brothers." 

First  Model.  —  "And"  is  a  conjunction,  it  connects  the  noun 
"John"  with  the  noun  "James." 

Note.  —  When  conjunctions  connect  words,  those  words  will  be 
the  same  parts  of  speech,  that  is  a  verb  and  a  verb,  an  adjective 
8* 


90  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  an  adjective,  etc.,  except  that  nouns  and  pronouns  may  be 
connected  by  a  conjunction. 

Second  Model.  —  "John  studies  his  lesson  carefully,  but 
James  is  very  negligent  of  his  lesson."  "  But "  is  a  conjunction, 
it  connects  the  sentence  "  John  studies  his  lesson  carefully,"  with 
the  sentence  "  James  is  very  negligent  of  his  lesson." 

Third  Model.  —  "iVaYAer  man  nor  beast  could  endure  the 
fatigue."  "  Neither  "  and  "  nor  "  are  Correlative  Conjunctions, 
used  to  connect  the  nouns  "  man  "  and  "  beast." 

Exercises.  —  Parse  each  of  the  Conjunctions  in  the  following 
sentences : 

Unless  a  man  lacks  virtue,  whether  he  is  humble  in  rank  or 
poor  in  purse,  he  is  worthy  of  respect  and  esteem.  Yet  there 
are  some  who,  notwithstanding  their  wealth  and  the  advantages 
of  fortune,  are  deemed  respectable,  though  their  vicious  habits 
should  subject  them  to  contempt.  These  shun  the  virtuous  poor, 
lest  they  might  degrade  themselves  in  their  own  estimation. 
But  they  forget  that  they  might  be  improved  by  intercourse  with 
their  virtuous  but  poor  brethren. 

Insert  proper  conjunctions  in  the  following  sentences: 

I  shall  need  an  umbrella, it  rain  to-morrow ; it 

be  a  clear  day,  I  shall  not  need  it, I  never  use  it  to  protect 

me  from  the  sun the  snow. 

The  colonel  remained  at  his  post, he  was  near  fainting 

from  the  loss  of  blood the  pain  of  his  wounds.     He  declared 

no  one  else  should  stand  by  the  flag ;  he  would  protect  it, 

while  he  had  life strength  left.     Faithfully heroically 

he  kept  his  word. 

Review  Exercise.  —  Parse  each  of  the  Nouns,  Adjectives, 
Pronouns,  Verbs,  and  Adverbs  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 


VIII.  PREPOSITIONS. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun  or 
pronoun  to  show  its  relation  to  some  other  word ;  as,  I 
write  with  a  pen. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PREPOSITIONS.  91 

Note  1.  —  The  word  preposition  takes  its  name  from  prod^ 
before,  and  positus,  placed,  because  it  is  placed  before  a  noun. 

Note  2.  —  Prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  intimately  related, 
both  being  connecting  words.  But  conjunctions  connect  things 
of  the  same  kind,  and  connect  them  as  equals,  an  adjective 
with  an  adjective,  a  noun  with  a  noun,  a  verb  with  a  verb, 
a  sentence  with  a  sentence,  etc.  A  preposition  connects  dif- 
ferently. It  ties  on,  as  it  were,  one  word  to  another,  as  a  sort  of 
addition.  Moreover,  the  word  thus  tied  on  by  a  preposition  is 
always  either  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  while  almost  any  part  of 
speech  may  follow  a  conjunction.  The  preposition  also  connects 
the  noun  following  it,  not  only  to  another  noun,  but  to  other 
parts  of  speech,  as  a  verb,  an  adjective,  etc.     Examples : 

"  I  write  with  a  pen."  "  With  "  connects  "  pen  "  (a  noun)  with 
"write"  (a  verb).  It  connects  the  act  with  the  instrument,  and 
shows  the  relation  between  them. 

"The  man  in  the  next  room."  "In"  connects  "room"  with 
"man,"  shows  a  relation  between  the  two. 

"  Taller  by  an  inch."  "  By  "  connects  its  dependent  noun 
"inch"  with  "taller"  (an  adjective). 

"  Dying  of  fever."  The  dependent  noun  is  connected  by  its 
preposition  "of"  to  "dying,"  a  participle. 

Note  3. — Some  of  the  Prepositions  are  original  and  uncom- 
pounded  words.  These  are  the  most  important,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  committed  to  memory.  Nearly  all  of  them  refer  in 
some  way  to  place  or  position. 

Simple  Prepositions. 

The  Simple  Prepositions  are  nineteen  :  viz.,  at,  after, 
by,  down,  for,  from,  in,  of,  on,  over,  past,  round,  since, 
through,  till,  to,  under,  up,  with. 

Note.  —  After  is  supposed  to  be  the  comparative  of  aft.  Doubts  have 
been  raised  in  regard  to  the  true  character  of  past. 

Compound  Prepositions. 

The  following  Compound  Prepositions  are  formed  by  prefixing 
a  to  some  other  word :  above,  about,  across,  against,  along,  amid 
or  amidst,  am^ng  or  amongst,  around,  athwart. 


92  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  prefix  a,  which  occurs  in  these  and  so  many  other  English  com- 
pounds, represents  a  variety  of  small  words,  such  as  at,  of,  in,  on,  to,  etc. 
In  the  compound  prepositions  it  generally  represents  on  or  in.  The  other 
part  of  the  compound  is  some  noun,  adjective,  adverb,  or  other  preposition. 

The  following  Compound  Prepositions  are  formed  by  prefixing 
be  (by)  to  some  other  words:  before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside 
or  besides,  between  or  betwixt,  beyond. 

The  following  Compound  Prepositions  are  formed  by  uniting 
without  change  two  prepositions,  or  a  preposition  and  an  adverb : 
upon,  toward,  towards,  unto,  into,  within,  without,  throughout,  under- 
neath. 

Note  1.  —  According  to,  instead  of,  and  out  of,  are  sometimes  inserted 
among  the  compound  prepositions.  But  there  is  no  necessity  of  such  a 
course.  The  words  are  written  separately,  and  may  all  be  parsed  separately. 
According  is  an  adjective  or  a  participle,  and  always  belongs  to  some  noun 
expressed  or  understood.  Instead  is  simply  in  stead.  Out  is  either  an 
adverb  or  an  adjective,  according  to  circumstances. 

Note  2.  —  Bating,  concerning,  during,  excepting,  regarding,  respecting, 
touching,  though  participles,  strictly  speaking,  frequently  have  the  con- 
struction of  prepositions,  and  may  be  so  parsed. 

Note  3.  —  There  is  no  more  reason  for  considering  near  and  nigh  prepo- 
sitions than  for  considering  like  a  preposition.  The  preposition  to  is  un- 
derstood in  all  such  cases;  thus,  "like  (to)  a  man,"  "near  (to)  the  city," 
"nigh  (to)  the  river."  An  ellipsis  o^  from  after  the  adverb  off  has  in  like 
manner  caused  the  latter  word  sometimes  to  be  inserted  incorrectly  among 
the  prepositions.     Ex.  "  ojff  (from)  his  horse." 


Parsing  Exercises. — Model.  —  "John  walks  on  the  roof." 
"On"  is  a  preposition,  it  is  placed  before  the  noun  "roof;" 
and  it  shows  a  relation  between  "  roof,"  and  "  walks,"  it  tells  on 
what  he  walks. 

Parse  each  of  the  Prepositions  in  the  following  sentences : 
In  the  morning  of  a  sunny  Sabbath  day,  the  village  children, 
with  happy  faces,  were  on  their  way  to  the  house  of  God.  The 
sun  that  looked  down  from  above  upon  them,  the  blue  sky  over 
them,  and  the  flowery  earth  beneath  their  ieet,  were  not  more 
brilliant  than  the  glance  of  their  eyes.  Hand  in  hand  they  went 
along  the  path  leading  to  the  church,  with  praise  upon  their 
tongues,  and  gratitude  reigning  within  their  hearts. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  INTERJECTIONS.  93 

Review  Exercise.— Parse  each  of  the  Nouna,  Adjectives, 
Pronouns,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  and  Conjunctions  in  the  foregoing 
sentences. 


IX.    INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  in  making  sudden 
exclamations ;  as,  ah  1  oh  I 

Note.  —  Interjection  takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  inter, 
between,  and^'aao,  to  throw. 

The  principal  Interjections  are,  adieu,  ah,  aha,  alack,  alas, 
begone,  ha,  hail,  halloo,  hark,  he,  hist,  ho,  hum,  hush,  huzza,  lo,  0^ 
oh,  pshaw,  see,  etc. 

Some  of  the  words  usually  called  interjections  are  other  parts  of  speech, 
and  may  bo  parsed  accordingly;  as,  behold,  a  verb  in  the  imperative; 
strange  /  an  ellipsis  for  it  h  stranrje,  etc.  When  the  words  are  not  resolv- 
able in  this  way,  but  are  mere  exclamations  (and  these  are  the  only  true 
interjections),  it  seems  doubtful  whether  they  ought  to  be  considered  as  a 
part  of  speech,  any  more  than  the  barking  of  a  dog  or  the  mere  noise  of 
any  other  animal. 

GENERAL  PARSING  EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  of  the  words  in  the  following  sentences : 
Benjamin  West's  aptitude  for  drawing,  exhibited  in  his  boy- 
hood, was  extraordinary.  No  restraint  could  check  it.  When, 
in  later  years,  he  was  painting  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse,  Gar- 
rick  the  actor  asked  him  "  if  he  should  die  for  him,"  meaning, 
"Shall  I  imitate  a  dying  man?"  "O!  no,"  replied  West,  think- 
ing apparently  that  Garrick  wished  to  do  him  a  great  service,  or 
intended  to  show  a  great  affection  for  him  or  a  great  admiration 
of  his  genius,  by  actually  dying. 


n^ 


94  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


WORDS  USED  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF 
SPEECH. 

As,  meaning  because,  or  since,  is  a  Conjunction.    Ex.   As  the 
wind  was  favorable,  we  set  sail.    It  is  also  a  part  of  the 
Correlative  Conjunction  as — so,  and  of  several  Complex 
Conjunctions,  as  well  as,  etc. 
As,  in  all  other  cases,  is  an  Adverb. 

Befobe,  After,  Till,  and  Until,  when  followed  by  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  are  Prepositions.    Ex. : 
Come  before  dinner. 
Come  after  dinner. 
Wait  till  midnight. 
Wait  until  your  turn. 
Before,  After,  Till,  and  Until,  when  not  followed  by  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  are  Adverbs.    Ex. : 
Come  before  I  have  dined. 
Come  after  I  have  dined. 
Wait  till  I  have  dined. 
Wait  until  I  have  dined. 
Both  is  an  Adjective,  when  it  means  the  two.    Ex.  Both  shoea 

need  mending. 
Both  is  a  Conjunction  in  all  other  cases.    Ex.  I  both  love  and 

respect  him. 
But  is  a  Preposition,  when  it  means  except,    Ex.  He  lost  all  his 

books  but  (except)  his  dictionary. 
But  is  an  Adverb,  when  it  means  only.     Ex.  I  but  (only)  touched 

him  and  he  cried. 
But  is  a  Conjunction  in  all  other  instances. 
Either  is  a  Distributive  Adjective  Pronoun,  when  it  means  one 

of  the  two.    Ex.  Either  of  the  boys  may  do  it. 
Either  is  a  Conjunction  in  all  other  cases. 
Neither  is  a  Distributive  Adjective  Pronoun,  when  it  means  not 

one  of  the  two. 
Neither  is  a  Conjunction  in  all  other  cases. 
For  is  a  Conjunction,  when  it  means  because,  and  is  used  in  giv- 
ing a  reason.    Ex.  I  obey  him, /or  he  is  my  father,  that 
is,  because  He  is  my  father. 
For  is  a  Preposition  in  all  other  cases. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  INTERJECTIONS.  95 

Since,  meaning  for  the  reason  that,  is  a  Conjunction.    Ex.  Since 

it  is  your  wish,  I  will  certainly  do  it. 
Since,  when  placed  before  a  noun  denoting  a  period  of  time,  is  a 

Preposition.     Ex.  I  have  had  no  food  since  Monday. 
Since,  in  other  cases,  is  an  Adverb. 
Then,  meaning  in  that  case,  or  therefore,  is  a  Conjunction.     Ex. 

If  all  this  be  so,  then  I  am  right. 
Then,  in  all  other  instances,  is  an  Adverb. 
That  is  a  Kelative  Pronoun,  when  who,  whom,  or  which  may  be 

used  in  its  place.     Ex.  He  is  the  wisest  man  that  lives  in 

our  village. 
That  is  a  Demonstrative  Adjective  Pronoun,  when  the  may  be 

used  instead  of  it.     Ex.  "  That  house  which  I  see,"  means 

"  the  house  which  I  see." 
That  is  a  Conjunction  in  all  other  cases.    Ex.  He  wears  warm 

clothes  that  he  may  not  catch  cold.     Here,  who,  whom, 

which,  or  the,  could  not  be  used  for  that. 
What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun,  when  that  which  or  those  which  can 

be  used  in  its  stead.    Ex.  Eat  what  is  set  before  you. 

That  is,  Eat  that  which  is  set  before  you. 
What  is  an  Interrogative  Pronoun,  when  used  to  ask  a  question. 

Ex.   What  do  you  see  ? 
What  is  an  Adjective  Pronoun,  when  joined  with  a  noun,  but 

not  asking  a  question.     Ex.   What  wonders  he  performed. 

He  gave  what  money  he  had  to  the  poor. 
What,  when  uttered  as  a  mere  exclamation,  and  to  denote 

surprise,  is    an    Interjection.      Ex.   What/    abuse    your 

mother ! 
While,  meaning  to  pass  or  spend  (time),  is  a  Verb.    Ex.  They 

managed  to  while  away  the  hour  very  pleasantly. 
While,  meaning  a  portion  of  time,  is  a  Noun.    Ex.  Let  us  sing 

a  white. 
While,  meaning  during  the  time  that,  is  an  Adverb.    Ex.  The 

act  was  done  while  I  was  absent. 
Yet,  meaning  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  is  a  Conjunction.  Ex, 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 
Yet,  meaning  up  to  a  certain  time,  or  over  and  above,  is  an  Adverb. 

Ex.  Has  the  boy  come  yet  f 

I  will  give  you  yet  one  more  reason. 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

By  the  Derivation  of  words  is  meant  tracing  them 
to  their  original  form  and  meaning. 

This  part  of  Etymology  has  assumed  so  much  importance  as  to  become 
a  separate  branch  of  study,  and  several  excellent  works  on  the  subject  have 
been  prepared.  In  like  manner,  the  Spelling-Book  and  the  Dictionary  may 
be  considered  as  having  grown  out  of  a  particular  branch  of  Orthography. 
In  consequence  of  the  existence  of  separate  works  on  these  points,  they 
are  passed  over  in  Grammar  more  cursorily  than  they  would  otherwise  be. 
Still  it  is  not  deemed  expedient  to  pass  them  over  altogether.  As  a  few  of 
the  most  important  rules  for  Spelling  were  given,  so  a  very  brief  summary 
will  be  presented  of  some  of  the  most  essential  principles  of  Derivation. 

A  Primitive  word  is  a  word  in  its  original  form ;  as,  good. 

A  Derivative  word  is  a  word  formed  from  another  by  some 
change  in  its  termination,  or  by  the  addition  of  some  letters  at 
the  beginning  or  end  of  the  word;  as,  goodness.  When  the 
additional  letters  make  by  themselves  an  entire  word,  the  word 
formed  is  generally  called  a  compound ;  as,  landlord. 

A  letter  or  a  syllable  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is 
called  a  prefix. 

A  letter  or  a  syllable  placed  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  called  an 
affix  or  suffix. 

The  Prefixes  are  generally  prepositions,  and  belong  to  three 
principal  classes,  viz.,  the  Saxon,  the  Latin,  and  the  Greek. 

I.  PREFIXES  OF  SAXON  ORIGIN. 

A  signifies  on  or  in  ;  as,  ashore,  that  is,  on  shore. 

Be  signifies  about ;  as,  bestir,  that  is,  stir  about ;  also,  for  or 
before ;  as,  bespeak,  that  is,  to  speak  for  or  before.  It  has  also 
several  other  meanings. 

For  denies;  as,  bid,/orbid  (bid  not  to  do  a  thing). 

Fore  signifies  before  ;  as,  see,/oresee. 

Mi8  signifies  defect  or  error  ;  as,  take,  mstake  (take  in  a  wrong 
way). 

Over  denotes  superiority  or  excess ;  as,  done,  overdone  (done  to 
excess). 

Out  signifies  excess  or  superiority ;  as,  run,  ow^run. 

Un  before  an  adjective  signifies  not;  as,  worthy,  wwworthy; 


ETYMOLOGY  —  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS.       97 

before  a  verb  it  signifies  the  undoing  of  the  act  expressed  by  the 
verb ;  as,  tie,  untie. 

Up  denotes  motion  upward;  as,  start,  wpstart;  and  also  subver- 
sion ;  as,  set,  upset. 

With  signifies  against,  from  ;  as,  stand,  t^tVAstand ;  draw,  with- 
draw. 

II.  PREFIXES  OF  LATIN  ORIGIN. 

A  [ab  or  abs)  signifies /row  or  away  ;  as,  abstract,  to  draw  away. 

^c?  signifies  to,  at;  as,  adjoin,  to  join  to  {Ad  assumes  diflferent 
forms  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  root  to  which  it  is  pre- 
fixed; as,  ascend,  accede,  a/fect,  a^rgrieve,  etc.). 

Ambi  from  ambo,  both,  signifies  double  ;  as,  ambiguous  (having 
two  meanings). 

Ante  signifies  before  ;  thus,  antediluvian,  before  the  flood. 

Bene  signifies  good,  well;  as,  benevolent,  well  disposed. 

Bi  or  bis  means  two  or  twice;  as,  bisect,  to  cut  into  two  parts. 

Circum  signifies  round,  about;  as,  circumnavigate,  to  sail  round. 

Cis  signifies  on  this  side;  as,  cis-alpine,  on  this  side  the  Alps. 

Con  [com,  co,  or  col)  signifies  together;  as,  convoke,  to  call  to- 
gether. 

Contra  (counter,  contro)  signifies  against;  as,  contradict,  to  speak 
against ;  counteract,  to  act  against. 

De  signifies  of,  from,  or  down;  as,  dethrone,  to  drive  from  the 
throne. 

Di  {dis,  dif)  signifies  asunder;  as,  distract,  to  draw  asunder. 
It  also  signifies  negation  or  undoing  ;  as,  disobey,  not  to  obey. 

E  {ex)  signifies  out  of;  as,  elect,  to  choose  out  of. 

Equi  signifies  equal;  as,  equidistant,  at  an  equal  distance. 

Extra  signifies  out  of,  beyond;  as,  extraordinary,  beyond  the 
ordinary  course. 

In,  before  an  adjective,  serves  as  a  negative ;  as,  active,  inac- 
tive; before  a  verb,  in  signifies  in  or  into;  as,  include,  to  close  in. 

Inter  signifies  between;  as,  intervene,  to  come  between. 

Intro  signifies  to,  within;  as,  introduce,  to  lead  in. 

Juxta  signifies  nigh  to;  as.  Juxtaposition,  placed  near  to. 

Mai  or  male  (from  malus,  bad)  signifies  ill  or  bad;  as,  malprac- 
tice, bad  practice. 

Manu  (from  manus,  a  hand)  signifies  with  or  by  the  hand;  as, 
manuscript,  anything  written  by  the  hand. 
9  G 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

;    Multi  signifies  many  ;  as,  multiform,  having  many  forms. 

Ob  [oc,  of,  0,  op)  signifies  opposition;  as,  obstacle,  something 
standing  in  opposition. 

Omni  signifies  all;  as,  omnipotent,  all  powerful. 

Per  signifies  through  or  thoroughly;  d.^, perfect,  thoroughly  done, 
finished. 

Post  signifies  after  ;  as,  postscript,  written  after. 

PrcB  or  pre  signifies  before  ;  as,  prepaid,  paid  before. 

Pro  signifies /or^A  or  forwards  ;  2^^,  promote,  to  move  forwards. 

Prceier  oy preter  signifies  joos^  or  beyond;  2iQ, preternatural,  \)Q' 
yond  the  course  of  nature. 

Re  signifies  again  or  back  ;  as,  regain,  to  gain  back. 

Retro  signifies  backwards  ;  as,  retrograde,  going  backwards. 

Se  signifies  apart  or  without ;  as,  secrete,  to  hide,  to  put  aside. 

Sine  signifies  without ;  as,  sinecure,  without  care  or  labor. 

Sub  signifies  wider ;  as,  submarine,  under  the  sea. 

Super  signifies  above  or  over ;  as,  superscribe,  to  write  above  or 
over. 

Trans  signifies  over,  from  one  place  to  another  ;  as,  transport,  to 
carry  over. 

III.  PREFIXES  OF  GREEK  ORIGIN. 

A  or  an  s>\gm^e^  privation  or  without;  as,  anonymous,  without 
a  name. 

Amphi  signifies  both  or  the  two ;  as,  amphibious,  having  two 
lives,  or  capable  of  living  both  on  land  and  in  water. 

Ana  signifies  through  or  up  ;  as,  anatomy  (literally),  a  cutting 
up. 

Anti  [ant)  signifies  against;  as,  antichristian,  against  Christian- 
ity; antarctic,  opposite  the  arctic. 

Apo  [ap)  signifies  from ;  as,  apogee,  from  the  earth ;  aphelion, 
from  the  sun. 

JDia  signifies  through  ;  as,  diameter,  a  measure  through. 

Epi  signifies  upon  ;  as,  epidemic,  upon  or  among  the  people. 

Hyper  signifies  over,  above;  as,  hypercritical,  over  critical,  too 
critical. 

Hypo  signifies  under,  implying  concealment;  as,  hypocrite,  a 
person  concealing  his  real  character. 

Meta  signifies  change,  transmutation  ;  as,  metamorphosis,  a  change 
of  shape. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS.      99 


Mono  signifies  single  ;  as,  monosyllable,  a  word  of  one  syllable. 

Para  signifies  beyond,  on  one  side;  as,  paradox,  an  opinion  be- 
yond or  contrary  to  the  general  opinion. 

Peri  signifies  round  or  about;  an, perimeter,  a  measure  round. 

Poly  signifies  many  ;  as,  polysyllable,  a  word  of  many  syllables. 

Semi  {demi,  hemi)  signifies  half;  as,  semicircle,  half  of  a  circle ; 
hemisphere,  half  of  a  sphere. 

Syn  {sy,  syl,  sym)  signifies  with,  together ;  as,  sympathy,  feeling 
with. 

IV.  AFFIXES. 

The  Affixes  are  very  numerous,  and  cannot  always  be  traced 
satisfactorily  to  their  origin.  They  are  generally  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  signification.  The  following  are  the  principal 
classes. 

1.  Afl&xes  denoting  the  agent  or  doer: 


an,   as  in  guardian. 

ent, 

as  in  adherent. 

ant,            assistant. 

er, 

baker. 

ar,             beggar. 

«rf, 

conform^/. 

ard,           dotard 

ive, 

operative. 

ary,          adversary. 

or, 

inspector. 

eer,        .  charioteer. 

liter, 

punster. 

2.  Aflixes  denoting  the  person  acted  upon : 

ate,  as  in  potentate.  ite,  as  in  favorite, 

ee,  assignee. 

3.  AflSxes  denoting  being  or  state  of  being  : 


acy, 

as  in  piracy. 

ment,  as  in  achievewei 

age. 

bonda^re. 

mony. 

SLcrimony, 

ance, 

repentance. 

ness. 

Sicuteness. 

ancy, 

flagrancy. 

ry, 

rivalry. 

ence, 

adherence. 

ship. 

friends/ii/>. 

ency, 

emergency. 

tk. 

depth. 

hood, 

boyhood. 

tude. 

aptitude. 

ion, 

exhaustion. 

iy. 

loyally. 

ism. 

despotmn. 

ure. 

discloswre. 

4.  Afl[ixes 

denoting  jurisdiction : 

dom,  ! 

as  in  kingc/owi. 

ric,  as  in 

bishopric. 

5.  Affixes 

denoting  diminution  : 

cle,  as  in  corpusc^. 

ling,  as  in 

L  duckling. 

kin. 

lamb^'n. 

ock, 

hillock. 

let. 

stream/e<. 

100 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


6.  Affixes  denoting  of  or  pertaining  to  : 


ac,  as  in  elegiac. 

ic, 

as  in  angehc. 

al,            autumna/. 

ical. 

canonical. 

aw,           republica?^. 

He, 

infanti7e. 

ar,           consular. 

ine, 

adamantine. 

ary,         momentary. 

ory, 

expiatory. 

en,           woode?!. 

7. 

Affixes  denoting /w^^  of: 

ate,  as  in  affectionate. 

OILS, 

as  in  hazardoMS. 

ful,            hope/w/. 

some 

,           gladsome. 

056,            globose. 

y» 

pithy. 

8. 

Affixes  denoting  capacity : 

ive,    as  in  coramunicatzw. 

ible. 

as  in  contemptt6/e, 

able,            i^ro^table. 

9. 

Affixes  denoting  to  make  : 

ate,  as  in  alienage. 

ize,  as  in  epitomise. 

en,            briglite?i. 

ize. 

methodi2e. 

fy,            justi/y. 

10 

.  Miscellaneous  affixes : 

like  signifies  likeness,  as  in 

saint/i^e. 

ly 

^  maidenly. 

ish      "         small  degree  of  anything,  as  in  black^sA. 
less     "  negation,  "     artless. 

ward  "         in  the  direction  ofj  "     hom&ward. 


Third   Part. 


>J»Ic 


The  third  part  of  Grammar  treats  of  Sentences. 
It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Syntax  and  Analysis. 
Syntax  treats  of  putting  words  together  into  sentences. 
Analysis  treats  of  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into 
the  parts  which  compose  it. 

I.    SYNTAX. 
General  Observations. 

A  Sentence  is  a  number  of  words  put  together  so  as 
to  make  complete  sense ;  as,  Man  is  mortal. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  Subject  (or 
nominative)  and  the  Predicate  (or  verb). 

A  Phrase  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  mean- 
ing, but  not  containing  a  finite  verb,  and  not  making  by 
themselves  complete  sense. 

A  Clause  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  mean- 
ing, and  containing  a  verb  with  its  subject,  and  so  making 
by  themselves  complete  sense,  but  not  independent,  being 
used  to  modify  some  other  word. 

9*  101 


102  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

A  Simple  sentence  is  one  which  contains  but  one 
subject  and  one  finite  verb ;  as,  Life  is  short. 

A  Complex  sentence  is  one  which  contains  a  simple 
sentence,  with  one  or  more  clauses  modifying  either  its 
subject  or  its  verb;  as,  A  life  which  is  spent  in  doing 
good  cannot  he  a  failure, 

A  Compound  sentence  is  one  which  contains  two  or 
more  sentences,  whether  simple  or  complex,  connected  by 
one  or  more  conjunctions;  as.  Life  is  shorty  butar't  is  long. 

The  sentences  which  compose  a  compound  sentence 
are  called  its  Members. 

For  a  fuller  Analysis  of  the  English  Sentence,  see  the  Chapter 
with  this  title  at  the  close  of  Syntax. 

Order  of  the  Rules  in  Syntax. 

In  the  old  grammars,  Syntax  was  divided  into  Concord  and  Government. 
By  Concord  was  meant  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another  in  gender, 
number,  case,  or  person.  By  Government  was  meant  the  power  which  one 
word  had  of  determining  the  mood,  tense,  or  case  of  another.  The  rules  of 
Syntax  were  then  classified  and  arranged  according  to  this  division.  To 
adhere  to  such  a  division,  however,  occasions  many  serious  inconveniences. 
Subjects  intimately  connected  in  every  other  respect  are  often  widely  sun- 
dered because  of  their  difference  in  this  one  unimportant  particular.  By 
the  same  arbitrary  arrangement,  rules  of  essential  importance,  which  the 
pupil  must  know  before  he  can  make  any  progress  in  parsing,  are  thrown 
far  forward  in  the  book,  quite  beyond  his  reach,  except  by  wading  through 
a  mass  of  rules  which  he  is  not  yet  qualified  to  comprehend. 

The  more  recent  grammarians,  therefore,  very  wisely  cease  to  insist  upon 
this  distribution,  and  practically  adopt  that  which  arises  naturally  from  the 
analysis  of  a  simple  sentence.  The  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  sub- 
ject, and  the  government  of  the  objective  case  demand  the  immediate 
attention  of  the  pupil,  at  the  very  threshold  of  syntax.  As  soon  as  he  has 
learned  to  resolve  simp'le  sentences,  he  is  prepared  for  those  which  are  more 
complex.  This  complexity  arises  either  from  the  combination  of  several 
simple  sentences  into  one,  or  from  connecting  various  adjuncts  with  the 
principal  parts  of  a  sentence.  Thus,  the  adjective  is  connected  with  the 
noun,  the  adverb  with  the  verb  or  adjective,  pronouns  with  their  antecedents, 
etc.  In  this  manner,  the  various  leading  rules  arise  nearly  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  wanted  by  the  pupil,  while  under  each  leading  rule  are 
given  all  the  exceptions  and  subsidiary  rules  naturally  connected  with  the 
subject. 


EULE    I. — THE    NOMINATIVE.  103 

RULE  I.        • 

The  Subject  of  a  Verb  must  be  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Case. 

Explanation. —  The  subject  of  the  verb  is  that  of  which  the 
assertion  is  made.  "  The  book  is  in  the  desk."  The  subject  of 
the  assertion  here  is  "  book."  It  is  that  which  is  asserted  to  be  in 
the  desk.  "  John  and  I  went  home."  Here  there  are  two  sub- 
jects, "  John  "  and  "  I."  It  is  of  both  these  we  say  that  they 
"  went  home."  Now,  the  subject  of  the  verb,  that  of  which  any- 
thing is  asserted,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case.  It  would  be 
contrary  to  the  Kule,  therefore,  to  say,  "  John  and  me  went  home," 
because  "me,"  one  of  the  subjects,  is  not  in  the  nominative  case. 

NOTES. 

1.  Complex  names,  such  as  George  Washington,  Charles  Henry 
Grant,  etc.,  should  be  taken  together  in  parsing,  as  if  they  were 
one  word.  Thus,  we  would  say,  "  Charles  Henry  Grant "  is  a 
noun,  etc. 

2.  The  subject  of  the  verb  may  be  an  infinitive  mood,  or  a  part 
of  a  sentence,  taken  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  To  behave  properly  will  gain 
for  us  a  good  name,"  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  the  sixth  command- 
ment." In  the  former  of  these  examples,  "  To  behave  "  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb,  just  as  "  behavior"  would  be,  if  the  sentence  were 
written,  "  Proper  behavior  will  gain  for  us  a  good  name." 

3.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  addressed,  and  not  the  subject  of  any 
verb,  is  in  the  Nominative  Case  Independent ;  as,  "  Father,  for- 
give them."  In  many  languages,  this  construction  forms  a  dis- 
tinct case,  called  the  Vocative. 

4.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  put  before  a  participle  as  its  subject, 
and  not  being  the  subject  of  any  verb,  is  in  the  Nominative  Case 
Absolute ;  as,  "  My  father  dying,  I  was  left  an  orphan." 

5.  In  the  construction  called  the  Case  Absolute,  the  noun  or 
pronoun  is  the  subject  of  the  participle;  and  the  two  words  taken 
together  form  a  dependent  clause  equivalent  to  a  subject  and  a 
verb,  preceded  by  a  conjunction  and  an  adverb.  Thus,  "  Whose 
grey  top  shall  tremble,  he  descending;"  that  is,  ^^when  he 
descends." 


104  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Tho  case  absolute,  in  al^aost  all  languages  except  the  English,  is  some 
other  than  the  nominative.  Thus,  in  the  Saxon  it  is  the  dative,  in  the  Latin 
it  is  the  ablative,  in  the  Greek,  and  in  most  of  the  Oriental  languages,  it  is 
the  genitive. 

6.  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  absolute  clauses  is  often  omitted. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Generally  speaking,  labor  is  not  without 
its  reward,"  "  speaking  "  is  put  absolutely  with  we,  men,  or  some 
other  word  of  the  kind,  understood. 

7.  The  rule  for  the  construction  of  absolute  clauses  is  violated 
by  putting  the  subject  of  the  participle  in  any  other  case  than 
the  nominative.  As  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns 
are  alike,  no  false  syntax  can  occur  under  this  rule  except  in 
pronouns.     "  //m  (he)  dying,  I  was  left  an  orphan." 

8.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  independent,  the 
case  absolute,  the  case  of  apposition,  and  the  nominative  after  an 
intransitive  verb,  should  be  the  subject  of  some  verb  expressed 
or  understood. 

9.  A  noun  and  its  pronoun  should  not  be  put  as  subjects  to  the 
same  verb ;  as,  "  The  day,  it  is  clear." 

Models  for  Parsing  and  Correcting. 

"James  writes  a  letter."  "James "  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the 
masculine  gender,  in  the  singular  number,  third  person,  and 
nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  writes,"  according  to  Kule 
I.,  which  says,  "The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nomina- 
tive case." 

"He  will  write  a  letter."  "He"  is  a  personal  pronoun, 
masc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  nom.  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  will 
write,"  according  to  Eule  I.     (Quote.) 

N.  B.  —  In  parsing  pronouns,  certain  other  things  are  to  be 
said,  which  will  be  learned  under  Rule  VIII.  The  parsing  in  the 
model  is  complete,  so  far  as  it  can  be  given  now. 

"  To  behave  properly  will  gain  for  us  a  good  name."  "  To 
behave  "  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  used  as  a  noun,  and  is 
the  subject  of  the  verb  "  will  gain,"  according  to  Note  2,  Rule  I. 
(Quote  the  Note.) 

"  Father,  forgive  them."  "  Father  "  is  a  com.  noun,  masc.  g., 
sing,  n.,  2d  p.,  and  in  the  nominative  case  independent,  accord- 
ing to  Note  3,  Rule  I.    (Quote  Note.) 


RULE    I. — THE    NOMINATIVE.  105 

"The  sash  falling  suddenly,  his  finger  was  crushed."  "Sash  " 
is  a  com.  noun,  n.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  nominative  case 
absolute  before  the  participle  "falling,"  according  to  Note  4, 
Kule  I.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Him  and  her  are  of  the  same  age." 
Ans.  Him  and  her  are  here  in  the  objective  case.  They  should 
be  in  the  nominative,  because  they  are  the  subjects  of  the  verb 
are^  and  should  read  he  and  she,  according  to  Rule  I.     (Quote.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  men,  him 
only  excepted  who  spake  as  never  man  spake  I "  "  Him  "  is  here 
in  the  objective  case.  It  should  be  in  the  nominative,  because 
it  is  placed  absolutely  with  "  excepted,"  and  should  read  "  he 
only  excepted,"  according  to  Note  4,  Rule  I.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  The  man,  he  is  rich."  He  is  super- 
fluous, because  it  is  not  needed  as  the  subject  of  any  verb.  The 
sentence  should  read,  "  The  man  is  rich,"  according  to  Note  9, 
Rule  I.    (Quote  Note.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  Subjects  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  wherever 
necessary : 

Virtue  ennobleb  the  mind,  vice  debases  it. 

London  is  on  the  Thames. 

A  good  conscience  fears  nothing. 

Him  and  I  could  not  agree. 

They  and  us  agreed  to  do  it. 

You  and  them  had  a  long  dispute. 

Thomas  and  me  learned  the  lesson  together. 

To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

To  cultivate  the  ground  gives  pleasant  occupation. 

Whence  and  what  art  thou,  execrable  shape? 

Show  pity,  Lord ;  O,  Lord,  forgive. 

Oh  what  a  fall  was  there,  my  countrymen ! 

His  disease  being  thoroughly  cured,  and  the  busy  season  having 
commenced,  he  should  have  been  at  his  post. 

Napoleon  being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe. 

Napoleon,  paving  raised  a  large  army,  crossed  the  Alps. 

His  character,  viewing  it  in  the  most  charitable  manner,  is  full 
of  blemishes. 


106  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Them  descending,  the  ladder  fell. 
Whom  being  dead,  the  hostility  ceased. 
Him  excepted,  John  was  the  worst  of  the  party. 
This  truth,  if  it  had  been  attended  to,  the  parties  would  have 
escaped  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 


»€*ic 


RULE   II. 

A  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Number 
AND  Person. 

ISrOTES. 

1.  Rule  II.  is  violated  by  putting  the  verb  in  any  other  num- 
ber or  person  than  its  subject ;  as,  "  They  was  present." 

2.  In  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and  Potential  moods,  every 
verb  should  have  a  subject  expressed,  except  where  two  or  more 
verbs  are  connected  in  the  same  construction. 

3.  A  verb  in  the  Infinitive  mood  has  no  subject  or  nominative. 

In  this  respect  the  English  differs  from  the  classical  and  many  other 
languages,  in  which  the  infinitive  very  commonly  has  a  subject  like  the 
other  moods,  but  is  distinguished  by  this  peculiarity,  that  the  subject  is 
not  in  the  nominative,  but  in  the  accusative  or  objective. 

4.  In  the  Imperative  mood,  the  subject  or  nominative  is  gener- 
ally omitted,  thou  or  you  being  understood. 

5.  When  the  subject  or  nominative  of  the  verb  is  an  infinitive 
mood,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  the  verb  should  be  singular;  as, 
"To  seethe  sun  is  pleasant,"  "Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  a  divine 
command."  But  if  there  are  two  or  more  infinitives,  or  clauses, 
making  distinct  subjects,  then  the  verb  should  be  plural;  as, 
"To  skate  and  to  play  cricket  are  healthful  amusements," 
"Thou  shalt  not  kill,  and  Thou  shalt  not  steal,  are  divine 
commands," 

6.  When  a  verb  has  for  its  subject  a  collective  noun  in  the 
singular,  expressing  unity  of  idea,  the  verb  should  be  sin- 
gular;  as,  "The  class  is  large."    But,  whenever  such  subject 


EULE    II. — THE  VERB.  107 

expresses  plurality  of  idea,  the  verb  should  be  plural ;  as,  "  The 
muhitnde  pursue  pleasure  as  their  chief  good." 

7.  Some  nouns,  which  are  not  considered  nouns  of  multitude, 
are  frequently  used  in  the  singular  form,  with  a  plural  meaning; 
as,  "  Ten  sail  of  the  line  were  seen  oflf  the  coast."  In  such  cases 
the  verb  should  be  plural. 

8.  "  It,"  used  indefinitely  before  a  verb  which  has  a  nomina- 
tive case  after  it,  is  the  subject  of  that  verb,  and  the  verb  agrees 
with  it,  and  not  with  the  other  nominative ;  thus,  "  It  is  I,"  not 
"  It  am  I ;"  "  It  is  they,"  not  "  It  are  they." 

9.  Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and,  expressed  or  under- 
stood, require  a  verb  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Socrates  and  Plato  were 
wise."  The  verb  in  such  cases  should  be  plural,  because  the 
assertion  is  made  of  all  the  subjects.  For  the  same  reason,  all 
the  nouns  and  pronouns,  representing  such  subjects  should  be 
plural ;  as,  "  Filthiness  and  bad  food  are  sources  of  disease,"  not 
"  a  source,"  etc. 

10.  Two  or  more  subjects,  connected  by  and,  if  used  to  express 
only  one  person  or  thing,  require  a  verb  in  the  singular;  as, 
"  That  eminent  statesman  and  orator  is  dead." 

11.  When  singular  subjects,  though  connected  by  and,  belong 
to  separate  propositions,' they  have  a  singular  verb;  as,  "The 
wine,  and  not  the  bottle,  was  used."  Subjects  connected  by  and 
belong  to  separate  propositions,  when  accompanied  by  each,  every, 
no,  not,  or  some  other  disuniting  word ;  as,  "Every  house,  every 
grove  was  burnt,"  "  Good  order,  and  not  mean  savings,  produces 
profits."  In  the  former  sentence,  the  meaning  is,  "  Every  house 
was  burnt,  and  every  grove  was  burnt."  In  the  latter,  "  Good 
order  produces  profits,  and  mean  savings  do  not." 

12.  Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular,  connected  by  or  or 
nx)r,  require  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  as,  "  Ignorance  or  prejudice 
has  caused  the  mistake."  The  verb  in  such  cases  should  be 
singular,  because  the  assertion  is  true  of  only  one  of  these  sub- 
jects. For  the  same  reason,  all  the  nouns  or  pronouns,  repre- 
senting such  subjects,  should  be  singular. 

13.  If  any  one  of  several  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor  is 
plural,  the  verb  must  be  plural ;  as,  "  Either  he  or  they  were 
mistaken." 

14.  When  a  verb  has  subjects  of  different  persons,  connected 
by  and,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  person  rather  than  the 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

second,  and  with  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  as,  "  He  and 
I  shared  the  peach  between  ws."  "Shared,"  here,  should  be 
parsed  as  in  the  first  person. 

15.  When  a  verb  has  subjects  of  different  persons,  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  agrees  in  person  with  the  subject  nearest 
to  it ;  as,  "  Either  thou  or  I  am  mistaken." 

Models  for  Parsing  and  Correcting. 

"James  writes  a  letter."  "'  Writes  "  is  a  transitive  verb,  irreg- 
ular (Pres.  write,  Past,  wrote,  Past  P.  written),  active  voice,  in- 
dicative mood,  present  tense,  and  is  in  the  singular  number, 
third  person,  to  agree  with  its  subject  "James,"  according  to 
Kule  II.     (Quote  the  Rule.) 

"  To  play  in  the  mud  soils  the  clothes."  "  Soils  "  is  a  trans, 
verb,  reg.,  act.  v.,  ind.  m.,  pres.  t.,  8d  p.,  and  in  the  sing,  n.,  to 
agree  with  the  verb  "  to  play  "  in  the  infinitive  mood  used  as  a 
noun,  according  to  Note  5,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

"Thou  shalt  not  steal,  is  the  eighth  commandment."  " Is  "  is 
an  int.  v.,  irr.,  ind.  m.,  pres.  t.,  3d  p.,  sing,  n.,  to  agree  with  its 
subject,  "  Thou  shalt  not  steal,"  a  part  of  a  sentence  used  as  a 
noun,  according  to  Note  5,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note. ) 

"  The  class  recite  well."  "  Recite  "  is  an  intrans.  verb.,  reg., 
act.  v.,  ind.  m.,  pres.  t.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  pi.  n.,  to  agree  with  its 
subject  "class,"  a  collective  noun  expressing  a  plural  idea, 
according  to  Note  6,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

"  Socrates  and  Plato  were  wise."  "  Were  "  is  an  intrans.  verb, 
irr.,  ind.  m.,  past  t.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  pi.  n.,  because  it  has  two 
subjects,  "Socrates"  and  "Plato,"  connected  by  "and,"  ac- 
cording to  Note  9,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.)- 

"  If  that  skilful  painter  and  glazier  is  in  town,  be  sure  to  em- 
ploy him."  "  Is  "  is  an  intrans.  verb,  irr.,  ind.  m.,  pres.  t.,  3d  p., 
and  in  the  sing,  n.,  because  its  two  subjects,  "painter"  and 
"  glazier,"  express  only  one  person,  according  to  Note  10,  Rule 
II.     (Quote  Note.) 

"  Ignorance  or  predjudice  has  caused  the  mistake."  "  Has 
caused  "  is  a  trans,  verb,  reg.,  act.  v.,  ind.  m.,  pres.-p.  t.,  3d  p., 
and  in  the  sing,  n.,  because  its  two  subjects,  "  ignorance  "  and 
"  prejudice,"  are  in  the  singular,  connected  by  or,  according  to 
Note  12,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 


RULE    II. —  THE    VERB.  109 

"He  and  I  shared  the  peach  between  us."  "Shared"  is  a 
trans,  verb,  reg.,  act.  v.,  ind.  m.,  past  t.,  in  the  pi.  n.,  according 
to  Note  9,  Rule  II.  (quote  Note),  and  in  the  1st  p.,  according  to 
Note  14,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note. ) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  I  loves  study."  Ans.  "  Loves  "  is  in 
the  third  person.  It  should  be  in  the  first  person,  to  agree  with 
its  subject,  "  I,"  and  should  read,  "  I  love  study,"  according  to 
Rule  II.     (Quote.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  The  days  of  man  is  but  as  grass."  Ans. 
"Is"  is  singular.  It  should  be  plural,  because  its  subject, 
"  days,"  is  plural.  The  sentence  should  read,  "  The  days  of  man 
are  but  as  grass,"  according  to  Rule  II.     (Quote  Rule.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Dear  Sir:  Have  just  received  your  let- 
ter." Ans.  "Have  received"  is  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mood, 
without  any  subject  expressed.  It  should  read,  "/  have  re- 
ceived," according  to  Note  2,  under  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "To  play  in  the  mud,  and  to  walk 
through  the  wet  grass,  soils  the  clothes."  Ans.  "Soils  "  is^ingu- 
lar.  It  should  be  plural,  and  should  read  "soil,"  because  it  has 
for  its  subject  two  infinitives,  "to  play  "  and  "to  walk,"  making 
two  distinct  subjects,  according  to  Note  5,  Rule  II.    (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  The  people  has  no  opinion  of  their 
own."  Ans.  "  Has  "  is  singular.  It  should  be  plural,  because 
it  has  for  its  subject  "people,"  a  collective  noun  expressing 
plurality  of  idea,  and  it  sliould  read,  "  The  people  have  no  opin- 
ion," according  to  Note  6,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the 
tongue."  Ans.  "  Is  "  is  singular.  It  should  be  plural,  because  it 
has  two  subjects  connected  by  "  and,"  and  should  read,  "  Life  and 
death  are"  etc.,  according  to  Note  9,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  That  distinguished  poet,  orator,  and 
scholar  are  dead."  Ans.  "Are "  is  plural.  It  should  be  "  is " 
(singular),  because  the  subjects  "poet,"  "orator,"  and  "scholar," 
though  connected  by  "  and,"  express  only  one  person,  and  should 
read,  "w  dead,"  according  to  Note  10,  Rule  II.     (Quote  Note.) 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Neither  precept  nor  discipline  are  so 
forcible  as  example."  Ans.  "Are"  is  plural.  It  should  be 
singular,  because  it  has  two  singular  subjects  connected  by  nor, 
and  should  read,  "  Neither  precept  nor  discipline  is"  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  Note  12,  Rule  II.  (Quote  Note.) 
10 


110  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Correct  the  sentence,  "  Either  I  or  thou  am  greatly  mistaken." 
Ans.  "Am  "  is  first  person.  It  should  be  second  person,  to  agree 
with  the  nearest  subject  "thou,"  and  should  read,  "Either  I 
or  thou  art  greatly  mistaken,"  according  to  Note  15,  Rule  II. 
(Quote  Note.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Verbs  and  Subjects  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting 
where  necessary : 

A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye. 

A  soft  answer  turn  away  wrath. 

Our  most  sanguine  prospects  has  often  been  blasted. 

The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee. 

A  judicious  arrangement  of  studies  facilitate  improvement. 

Constant  perseverance  in  the  path  of  virtue  will  gain  respect. 

There  was  no  memoranda  kept  of  the  sales. 

The  number  of  the  inhabitants  amount  to  one  million. 

Have  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oats  been  given  to  the  horse  ? 

Sufficient  data  was  not  given,  and  the  solution  of  the  problems 
were  impossible. 

Between  grammar  and  logic  there  exists  many  connections. 

Many  means  was  employed,  but  no  one  means  were  found 
efficient. 

Trout  was  found  in  abundance. 

"Oats"  are  a  common  noun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  plural 
number,  and  are  governed  by  the  preposition  "  of." 

His  clothes  is  torn. 

Dear  Sir  :  —  Have  just  received  your  letter  of  yesterday.  Am 
sorry  to  hear  that  the  stereotype  plates  are  sold.  Hope  to  have 
better  luck  next  time.  On  the  whole,  think  have  not  quite  lost 
all  chances  of  them  yet.    Very  truly  yours,  etc. 

To  encourage  virtuous  actions  are  praiseworthy. 

To  love  God  and  keep  his  commandments,  are  the  whole  duty 
of  man. 

To  eat  with  unwashed  hands,  to  drink  wine,  and  to  eat  the  flesh 
of  certain  animals,  is  forbidden  by  the  Koran. 

Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God,  is  the  first  and  great  com- 
mandment. 

Send  the  multitude  away,  that  it  may  go  and  buy  itself  bread. 


RULE    II. — THE    VERB.  Ill 

Some  people  is  busy  and  yet  does  very  little. 

Cavalry  is  not  furnished  with  knapsacks. 

The  gang  contain  all  the  idle  and  vicious  boys  of  the  village. 
Congress  have  adjourned. 

The  youth  of  this  country  is  well  educated. 

The  Board  of  Health  have  forbidden  the  vessel  to  enter  the 
port. 

It  is  the  boys  of  whom  I  complain. 

The  sacred  Scriptures  should  be  read  by  all. 

The  smiles  of  the  mob  is  easily  gained. 

Four  pair  of  ducks  was  brought  into  the  market. 

Twenty  head  of  sheep  was  grazing  on  the  hill. 

The  time  and  the  place  for  the  conference  was  agreed  upon. 

Idleness  and  ignorance  brings  sorrow. 

Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity. 

Prosperity  and  adversity  is  sent  to  us  for  wise  purposes. 

The  abuse  of  wine,  not  its  use,  make  it  a  curse. 

My  brother  with  two  friends  have  arrived. 

Nothing  but  the  flag  and  flagstaff  was  visible. 

A  strong  argument,  and  not  a  loud  voice,  bring  conviction. 

Food,  and  no  water,  are  not  sufficient  to  support  life. 

There  was  a  man  and  a  woman  found  dead,  who  were  natives 
of  England. 

Every  city,  town,  and  village  were  depopulated. 

There  seems  to  be  war,  famine,  and  disease  at  this  time  on  the 
earth. 

On  the  tomb  is  this  inscription:  "Here  lies  a  statesman  and 
philosopher." 

Our  parlor  and  sitting-room  were  the  front  room  in  the  second 
story. 

His  bread  and  butter  depends  upon  his  exertions. 

The  house  in  which  I  was  born,  my  boyhood's  happy  home, 
and  the  abode  of  all  those  whom  I  hold  dear,  are  now  crumbling 
to  dust. 

The  flute  or  the  piano,  when  skilfully  played,  produce  delight- 
ful music ;  but  the  sound  of  a  drum,  or  the  squeaking  of  the  fife, 
are  discordant. 

Neither  the  secretaries  nor  the  president  was  to  be  blamed. 

To  read  or  to  write  were  equally  difficult  to  him. 

Out  of  his  mouth  come  neither  profanity  nor  obscenity. 


112  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Neither  the  laws  nor  the  Constitution  is  suflacient  to  insure 
perfect  order  in  the  community. 

Neither  the  captain,  nor  the  passengers,  nor  any  of  the  crew 
was  saved. 

In  him  were  found  neither  deceit,  nor  any  other  vice. 

Here  no  longer  does  my  wife  or  children  sit  at  evening. 
Neither  my  house,  nor  she  who  was  its  chief  attraction,  have  been 
spared  by  the  destroyer,  time. 

Has  not  his  ignorance  or  bad  manners  made  him  the  scorn  of 
everybody  ? 


Di«<c 


RULE  III. 

A  Transitive  Verb,  in  the  Active  Voice,  re- 
quires AN  Object  in  the  Objective  Case. 

Note.  —  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  is  said  to  be  governed  by 
the  verb. 

NOTES. 

1.  Rule  III.  is  violated  in  four  ways,  namely:  1.  By  putting 
the  object  of  the  verb  in  any  other  case  than  the  objective ;  as. 
She  asked  him  and  /(me)  to  do  it.  2.  By  using  a  transitive 
verb  in  the  active  voice  without  an  object;  as.  He  ingratiates 
(himself)  with  people,  3.  By  inserting  a  preposition  between 
the  verb  and  its  object;  as,  I  shall  premise  (with)  a  few  observa- 
tions. 4.  By  using  an  objective  with  a  verb  that  is  not  transi- 
tive ;  as,  I  lie  me  down  to  sleep. 

2.  A  participle  of  a  Transitive  verb,  in  the  Active  voice,  re- 
quires an  object  in  the  objective  case;  as,  *'The  boy,  having  eaten 
unripe/rwi^,  became  sick." 

3.  The  Relative  Pronoun,  when  in  the  objective  case,  generally 
precedes  the  verb  by  which  it  is  governed ;  as,  "  The  book  which 
you  see  is  mine."  Here,  "  which"  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "see," 
and  is  placed  before  it. 

4.  The  verb  to  teach  and  some  few  others  retain  the  object  in 
the  objective  case,  even  in  the  passive  voice. 


RULE    III. — THE    OBJECTIVE.  113 

In  explaining  this  construction,  which  is  somewhat  peculiar  in  English, 
though  common  in  Latin,  it  is  necessary  to  revert  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  direct  and  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb.  "He  gives  the  book 
to  me."  "Book"  is  the  direct  object,  "me"  is  the  indirect  object.  In 
changing  the  expression  to  the  passive,  the  direct  object  becomes  nomina- 
tive. "  The  book  is  given  to  me."  Now,  in  the  case  of  the  verb  "  to 
teach,"  and  of  some  few  others,  in  changing  to  the  passive,  the  direct  object 
remains  in  the  objective,  and  the  indirect  object  becomes  nominative.  Ac- 
tive: "He  taught  grammar  (direct  object)  tome"  (indirect).  Passive:  "I 
was  taught  grammar"  (direct  object).  The  following  are  some  additional 
examples  of  this  construction:  "I  was  asked  a  question,"  "I  was  denied 
the  privilege,"  "  I  was  offered  a  place  in  the  custom-house." 

Models  for  Parsing  and  Correcting. 

"James  writes  a  letter. ^^  "Letter"  is  a  com.  noun,  n.  g.,  sing. 
n.,  3d  p.,  and  is  in  the  obj.  c,  governed  by  "  writes,"  a  transitive 
verb  in  the  active  voice,  according  to  Rule  III.     (Quote.) 

"The  boy,  having  eaten  unripe/n/iY,  became  sick."  "Fruit" 
is  a  com.  noun,  n.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  obj.  c,  governed 
by  the  participle  "having  eaten,"  according  to  Note  2,  Rule  III. 
(Quote  Note.) 

"James  called  Aim."  "  Him "  is  a  pers.  pronoun,  masc.  g., 
sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  obj.  c,  governed  by  "  called,"  a  trans. 
V.  in  the  act.  v.,  according  to  Rule  III.     (Quote.) 

Note. — The  parsing  of  the  Pronoun  here  is  complete  as  far 
as  it  goes.  But  there  are  other  things  to  be  learned  concerning 
it  under  Rule  VIII.,  before  it  can  be  entirely  complete. 

"He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  art  thou?"  "He"  and 
"they"  should  be  in  the  objective  case,  because  they  are  the 
object  of  the  verb  "  know."  The  sentence  should  be,  "  Him  and 
them  we  know,"  according  to  Rule  HI.     (Quote.) 

"He  ingratiates  with  some  by  traducing  others."  "Ingrati- 
ates," a  transitive  verb,  should  not  be  used  without  an  object. 
Insert  "  himself."     "  He  ingratiates  himself  with  some." 

"  I  shall  premise  with  a  few  general  observations."  The  prep- 
osition "  with"  should  not  be  inserted  between  the  transitive  verb 
"premise"  and  its  object  "observations."  Omit  "with."  "I 
shall  premise  a  few  general  observations." 

"  I  lie  me  down  to  sleep."     "  Lie,"  an  intransitive  verb,  should 
not  have  an  object  "me."     Either  change  "lie"  to  "lay,"  or  omit 
"  me.^'     "  I  lay  me  down  to  sleep,"  or  "  I  lie  down  to  sleep." 
10*  H 


114  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Objectives  which  are  the  objects  of  verbs,  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, correcting  where  necessary : 

She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

The  sailors,  while  exploring  the  island,  found  trees  bearing 
delicious  fruit.  Having  eaten  a  quantity  of  this  fruit,  and  rested 
their  weary  limbs,  they  continued  their  journey. 

Devotion  strengthens  virtue. 

We  ought  to  disengage  from  the  world  by  degrees. 

A  good  conscience  fears  nothing. 

Eepenting  him  of  his  design,  he  returned  to  his  home. 

Application  in  early  life  will  give  ease  in  old  age. 

He  who  committed  the  offence,  thou  shouldst  punish,  not  I 
who  am  innocent. 

It  is  diflacult  to  agree  his  conduct  with  the  principles  which  he 
professes. 

Perseverance  in  labor  will  surmount  every  difficulty. 

Wrong  acts  he  suffers  with  patience. 

The  child  chased  after  the  butterfly. 

The  waters  of  the  Mississippi  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  fountains  of  the  great  deep  were  broken  up. 

Anger  inflamed  him  with  rage. 

The  time  fixed  for  the  celebration  has  long  since  passed. 

The  fact  mentioned  in  your  letter  has,  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
escaped  my  memory. 

Cave  canem,  translated  into  English,  means  "  Beware  the  dog." 

"  Slow  and  steady  often  out-travels  haste." 

"  All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy." 

"Chiefs,  sages,  heroes,  bards,  and  seers. 
That  live  in  story  and  in  song, 
Time,  for  the  last  two  thousand  years. 
Has  raised,  and  shown,  and  swept  along." 

Review. 

Parse  all  the  Subjects  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  and  all  the 
Verbs  except  those  in  the  Infinitive  mood. 


KULE    IV. — PREPOSITIONS.  115 

RULE  IV. 

A  Preposition  requires  an  object  in  the  Objec- 
tive Case. 

Note.  —  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  after  a  preposition  is  said 
to  bo  governed  hy  it. 

NOTES. 

1.  A  Preposition  is  generally  placed  before  the  word  which  it 
governs ;  as,  "  He  came  to  town." 

2.  That,  when  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  always  precedes  the 
preposition  by  which  it  is  governed ;  as,  "  Every  book  that  you 
have  referred  to,  is  mine."  Here  "that"  is  governed  by  the 
preposition  "  to,"  and  precedes  it.  If  we  were  to  use  "  which  " 
here  instead  of  "that,"  the  arrangement  would  be  different;  thus, 
"  Every  book  to  which  you  have  referred,  is  mine." 

3.  Wiom  and  which  sometimes  precede  the  preposition;  as, 
"  The  person  whom  I  travelled  with."  This  mode  of  construction 
is  generally  considered  inelegant,  especially  where  the  preposition 
is  separated  some  distance  from  the  word  which  it  governs*.  The 
sentence  just  quoted  would  read  better  thus :  "  The  person  with 
whom  I  travelled." 

4.  The  preposition  and  the  word  governed  by  it  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  preceding  word  to  which  they 
relate ;  as,  "  He  was  reading  in  a  low  voice,  when  I  entered." 
This  is  better  than  saying,  "  He  was  reading,  when  I  entered,  in 
a  low  voice."  The  words  "  in  a  low  voice,"  relate  to  the  act  of 
"  reading,"  and  should  not  unnecessarily  be  separated  from  it. 

5.  Sometimes,  in  law  papers,  and  other  documents  of  a  formal 
nature,  two  prepositions  govern  jointly  the  same  word ;  as,  "  He 
is  related  to,  and  governed  by,  the  same  person."  Such  construc- 
tions in  other  kinds  of  writing  should  be  avoided.  The  sentence 
may  run  thus :  "  He  is  related  to  the  same  person,  and  is  gov- 
erned by  him." 

6.  It  is  a  very  objectionable  mode  of  construction  to  make  the 
same  word  governed  jointly  by  a  transitive  verb  and  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  He  was  warned  of,  and  urged  to  avoid,  the  danger." 
It  should  be,  "  He  was  warned  of  the  danger,  and  urged  to  avoid 
it." 


116  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

7.  When  a  preposition  is  followed  by  an  adjective  without  a 
noun,  supply  the  noun,  and  parse  the  preposition  accordingly ; 
as,  "Keep  to  the  right  (hand)." 

8.  The  preposition  is  frequently  omitted,  particularly  after 
verbs  of  giving  and  procuring ;  after  adjectives  of  likeness  or  near- 
ness; and  before  nouns  denoting  time,  place,  price,  measure,  etc. 
When  it  is  practicable  to  supply  the  ellipsis,  the  noun  or  pronoun 
is  parsed  as  in  the  objective,  governed  by  the  preposition  thus 
supplied.  But  when  no  such  word  can  be  supplied,  we  say  the 
noun  is  in  the  objective,  expressing  time,  place,  price,  measure,  etc., 
without  any  governing  word.  Examples :  Give  (to)  me  a  book. 
Get  (for)  me  an  apple.  Like  (to)  his  father.  Near  (to)  his 
home.  They  travelled  (through)  sixty  miles  (in)  a  day.  A  wall 
six  feet  high.  Subjects  worthy  (of)  fame.  Books  worth  (worthy 
of?)  a  dollar. 

The  last  example  cited  above  is  somewhat  disputed  and  not  very  clear. 
"  Worth"  appears  to  be  an  adjective,  because  it  evidently  qualifies  the  noun, 
and  may  itself  be  qualified  by  an  adverb ;  as,  "  He  had  a  wife  tvdl  worth 
the  confidence  which  he  placed  in  her."  Here,  "  well  "  qualifies  worth,  and 
"worth  "  qualifies  wife,  just  as  clearly  as  if  it  were  "worthy."  The  con- 
struction, too,  seems  precisely  analogous  to  the  following :  "  This  deed  is  no 
more  worthy  (of)  heaven,  than  thou  art  worthy  (of  )  her."  As  in  the  latter 
case  there  is  an  evident  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  the  most  natural  solu- 
tion of  the  former  seems  to  be  to  say,  that  "  of"  is  omitted,  and  that 
"  worth,"  by  an  anomalous  usage,  is  employed  in  the  sense  of  "  worthy," 
and  is  an  adjective. 

There  is  another  use  of  "  worth,"  entirely  distinct  from  the  foregoing. 
In  the  phrase,  ''  Wo  worth  the  chase,"  etc.,  it  is  agreed  universally  that 
"  worth "  is  the  Saxon  Imperative  of  the  verb  weorthan,  meaning  simply 
be  to,  or  betide,  "  Wo  be  (to)  the  chase,"  "  Wo  betide  the  chase,"  etc. 

9.  Formerly,  the  preposition  for  was  used  before  the  infinitive 
mood ;  as,  "  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?  "  This  is  not  allow- 
able now. 

10.  Sometimes  one  preposition  immediately  precedes  another ; 
as,  "From  before  the  altar."  The  two  prepositions  in  such  cases 
should  be  considered  as  one,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  compound 
prepositions  upon,  within,  etc. 

11.  Sometimes  a  preposition  precedes  an  adverb;  as,  at  once, 
for  ever,  etc.  The  two  words  should  be  taken  together,  as  in  the 
preceding  case,  and  called  an  adverb. 


RULE    IV. — PREPOSITIONS. 


117 


12.  At  and  to.  At  is  used  after  a  verb  of  rest;  as,  " He  resides 
at  Madrid."  To  is  used  after  a  verb  of  motion ;  as,  "  He  went  to 
Madrid." 

13.  Between  and  among.  Between  refers  to  two  objects,  among 
to  more  than  two ;  as,  "  There  is  no  difference  of  opinion  between 
the  President  and  the  Vice-President  (two),  although  there  ia 
among  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  generally  (more  than  two).'* 

14.  Words  followed  by  appropriate  prepositions. 


Absent /roTW. 
Access  to. 
Accused  of. 
Acquit  of. 
Adapt  to. 
Affection  for. 
Alienate /ro?7i. 
Alliance  with. 
Bestow  upon. 
Comply  with. 
Consonant  with. 
Depend  upon. 
Dissent/rom. 
Made  of. 
Martyr/or. 
Need  of. 
True  to. 

J  Agent  charged  with  a  thing. 

1  Thing  charged  on  an  agent. 

f  Avert  from  (verb). 

1  Averse  to  (adjective). 
Differ  with  a  person  in  opinion. 

"    from  him  in  character. 
Agree  with  a  person. 
"      to  a.  thing. 


I  Attribute  to  (verb). 
1  Attribute  of  (noun). 
(  Diminished /rom  (a  verb). 
I  Diminution  of  (a  noun). 
Betray  to  a  person. 
"      into  a  thing. 
Call  on  a  person. 
"  at  a  house. 
"  for  a  thing. 
Confide  to  (transitive). 

"      in  (intransitive). 
Accord  to  (transitive). 

"      with  (intransitive). 
Compare  to  (for  illustration). 

"        with  (for  quality). 
Co^jfrom  nature. 

"     after  a  parent. 
Defend  others  from. 

"      ourselves  against. 
Die  o/  a  disease. 
"   by  a.  sword. 
Reconcile  a  person  to. 

"         a  thing  with. 
Taste  o/ (actual  enjoyment). 
"    for  (capacity  for  enjoying). 


Many  words  derived  from  the  Latin  and  Greek  arc  compounded  with  a 
preposition.  Some  writers  are  disposed  in  such  casos  to  adopt  the  classical 
usage,  and  make  the  following  preposition  correspond  to  the  one  found  in 
the  compound;  as,  "  o verso  from,"  "  depend /rom."  etc.  This  is  not  ac- 
cording to  the  idiom  of  the  language,  which  requires  a  preposition  corre- 
sponding to  the  actual,  present  meaning  of  the  whole  word,  aud  not  to  the 


118  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

original  meauing  of  its  constituent  parts.  "Averse"  meant,  originally, 
"turned  from;"  it  now  means  "opposed,"  "disinclined,"  and  should  be 
followed  by  "  to."  "  Depend  "  meant,  originally,  "  hang  down  from ;  "  it 
now  means  "  rely  upou"  "  lean  upon"  etc. 

The  usages  of  the  language  in  regard  to  the  prepositions  are  exceedingly 
various,  and  cannot  be  fully  enumerated  in  an  elementary  work  like  the 
present.  The  more  advanced  student,  who  wishes  to  be  accurate  in  this 
particular,  should  have  by  him  some  work  of  reference  of  standard  author- 
ity, containing  ample  quotations  from  the  best  authors.  The  list  in  the 
text  contains  a  few  of  the  most  common  of  these  usages. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

"  James  writes  a  letter  to  his  father.^'  "  Father  '*  is  a  com. 
noun,  niasc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d.  p.,  and  in  the  obj.  c,  governed  by  the 
preposition  "  to,"  according  to  Rule  IV.     (Quote.) 

"  To  "  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  "  writes  " 
and  "  father,"  and  governs  "father"  in  the  obj.  c,  according  to 
Eule  IV.     (Quote.) 

"  God  seeth  in  secrete  "  In  "  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  re- 
lation between  "  seeth  "  and  ''  places,"  or  some  such  noun  under- 
stood.   The  meaning  is,  "  God  seeth  in  secret  places." 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Prepositions,  and  the  Nouns  or  Pronouns  governed  by  them,  in 
the  following  sentences,  and  correcting  the  sentences  where  necessary : 

Indolence  undermines  the  foundation  of  virtue,  and  unfits  a 
man  for  the  duties  of  life. 

Between  you  and  I,  he  has  no  scholarship  to  boast  of. 

God,  in  whom  I  trust,  will  protect  me. 

Confide  to  real  friends  only ;  confide  nothing  in  him  who  has 
once  deceived  you. 

If  I  compare  my  penmanship  to  yours,  mine  will  sufier  by  the 
comparison. 

Newton,  in  order  to  show  how  little  lie  had  accomplished,  com- 
pared himself  with  a  child  picking  pebbles  on  the  sea-shore. 

The  Indian  differs  with  the  Caucasian  in  color. 

I  differ  from  you  on  this  point. 

Who  did  you  receive  that  intelligence  from  ? 

The  book,  which  the  story  is  printed  in,  is  full  of  pictures. 


RULE    IV. —  PREPOSITIONS.  119 

The  delay  in  the  printing  renders  the  progress  very  slow  of  the 
work. 

Beyond  this  period,  the  arts  cannot  be  traced  of  civil  society. 

He  is  unacquainted  with,  and  cannot  speak  upon,  the  subject. 

He  dwelt  upon,  and  strongly  urged,  your  claims. 

I  received,  but  had  not  time  to  reply  to,  your  letter. 

The  book  is  like  its  author. 

The  fountain  is  near  the  city. 

His  mother  bought  him  a  top. 

The  next  day  they  set  out  early  in  the  morning,  and  travelled 
twenty  miles. 

His  health  he  little  thought  of. 

There  is  a  room  in  the  second  story  suitable  for  a  single  gentle- 
man with  a  fireplace. 

He  was  talking,  while  his  class  were  quietly  studying,  in  a  loud 
voice,  when  his  teacher  entered,  and  chastised  him,  with  noiseless 
steps. 

Who  did  you  inquire  of,  at  the  house  which  you  were  sent  to, 
and  what  did  they  complain  of? 

Ho  approved  of  and  voted  for  this  measure. 

I  have  noticed  of  late  that  the  sky  above  and  the  earth  beneath 
wear  an  appearance  of  gloom. 

I  sought  in  vain  for  a  cheerful  spot,  and  at  last  gave  up  in  de- 
spair. 

From  within,  a  foul  stench  arose ;  but  from  without,  the  sepul- 
chre was  fair  and  comely. 

I  will  take  her  for  better,  for  worse. 

He  addresses  himself  to  the  loyal. 

Though  he  was  a  child  only  five  years  old,  he  showed  grown 
men  an  example  worthy  their  imitation. 

Next  her  brother,  stood  a  little  girl,  who  asked  the  boy  oppo- 
site her  place,  to  lend  her  his  book,  but  he  churlishly  refused  her 
this  simple  request. 

The  thermometer  was  two  degrees  below  zero. 

He  was  sent  home  two  weeks  soonet  than  the  usual  time. 

Among  a  brother  and  a  sister  no  strife  should  arise. 

Between  the  many  religious  sects  he  was  unable  to  find  one 
suited  to  his  notions  of  religion. 

The  army  will  remain  in  Washington  for  a  day  and  then  march 
at  the  nearest  point  of  attack. 


120  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

He  divided  his  estate  between  his  wife,  his  son,  and  his  daughter. 

His  actions  do  not  accord  to  his  preaching ;  we  cannot  accord 
our  support  with  him. 

It  was  diflacult  to  reconcile  the  mother  with  the  loss  of  her 
child ;  she  could  not  reconcile  such  an  affliction  to  the  goodness 
of  God. 

Review. 

Parse  all  the  objects  of  Verbs  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 
Parse  all  the  Verbs  (except  those  in  the  infinitive),  and  all  the 
Subjects. 


RULE  V. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive  Case 
is  dependent  upon  the  noun  signifying  the  thing 
possessed. 

Note. —  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  i3  said  to  be  governed  by 
the  noun  signifying  the  thing  possessed. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  possessive  case  is  not  the  only  way  in  which  the  idea  of 
possession  may  be  expressed.  A  very  common  mode  of  expressing 
this  idea  is  by  using  the  preposition  of.  Thus,  "  The  house  of  my 
father,"  and  "  My  father's  house,"  express  equally  the  idea  of  pos- 
session. In  substituting  one  of  these  modes  of  expression  for  the 
other,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  two  expressions  mean 
the  same  thing.  In  the  expression,  "  The  House  of  Represent- 
atives," "  of"  does  not  convey  the  idea  of  possession,  but  of  compo- 
sifion.  It  means  the  House  or  Assembly  composed  of  Represent- 
atives. 

2.  The  noun  governing  the  possessive  case  is  often  omitted ;  as, 
"  I  bought  this  slate  at  the  bookseller's  [shop]."  In  such  cases, 
supply  the  omission,  and  parse  according  to  the  general  rule. 

3.  In  consequence  of  ellipsis,  there  is  sometimes  an  appearance 


EULE    V.  —  THE    POSSESSIVE    CASE.         121 

of  a  double  possessive;  as,  "This  is  a  speech  of  the  king's 
[speeches]."  Here,  "of"  does  not  denote  possession.  The 
meaning  is,  "This  speech  is  one  of  the  king's  speeches."  In  all 
such  instances,  the  preposition  governs  the  noun  understood,  and 
the  noun  understood  governs  the  possessive. 

4.  The  two  modes  of  expression,  "  A  picture  of  the  king,"  and 
"  A  picture  of  the  king's,"  never  mean  the  same  thing.  The  noun 
understood  in  the  latter  case  is  always  plural,  and  the  idea  is 
always  that  of  possession.  The  phrase,  "  A  picture  of  the  king's," 
implies  that  this  is  one  out  of  many  pictures,  and  that  they  be- 
long to  the  king.  But,  in  the  phrase,  "  A  picture  of  the  king," 
no  intimation  is  given  of  a  plurality  of  pictures,  and  the  idea  of 
possession  is  not  necessarily,  if  ever,  conveyed. 

5.  In  complex  names  and  in  complex  titles,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive is  put  only  at  the  end,  and  the  whole  complex  name,  or 
title,  is  parsed  as  one  word.  Thus,  "  George  Washington's  fare- 
well address,"  not  "  George's  Washington's,"  etc. 

6.  A  complex  title  sometimes  consists  of  several  words,  some  of 
which  may  be  different  parts  of  speech,  and  may  have  an  indepen- 
dent construction  of  their  own ;  thus,  "  The  captain  of  the  guard's 
horse  was  slain."  In  parsing  such  a  sentence,  "  of  the  guard  " 
should  be  parsed  first,  each  word  separately,  "  guard  "  being  in 
the  objective.  Then,  "captain  of  the  guard's"  should  be  parsed 
as  one  complex  name,  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  "horse." 
The '5  belongs  not  to  "guard,"  but  to  the  whole  expression.  These 
complex  titles  are  sometimes  written  with  a  hyphen,  as,  "  com- 
mander-in-chief" 

7.  Where  complex  titles  are  used,  the  idea  of  possession  may 
be  conveyed  by  using  "  of,"  "belonging  to,"  or  something  similar. 
This  mode  of  expression  in  such  cases  is  generally  to  be  preferred 
I0  the  use  of  's.  Thus,  "The  horse  belonging  to  the  captain  of 
the  guard  was  slain." 

8.  When  two  or  more  nouns  are  connected  in  the  possessive, 
expressing  joint  possession,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be 
annexed  to  the  last  only  ;  as,  "The  king  and  queen's  marriage." 
"  King"  here  is  to  be  parsed  as  the  possessive,  with  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  omitted.  If,  however,  several  words  intervene  be- 
tween the  nouns  so  connected,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should 
not  be  omitted;  as,  "It  was  my  father's,  and  also  my  mother's 
wish." 

11 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

9.  The  sign  of  the  possessive  should  not  be  omitted  when  sep- 
arate, instead  of  joint  possession  is  expressed ;  as,  "  Washington's 
and  Cornwallis's  troops  approached  each  other." 

10.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  has  one  or  more 
nouns  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  often  omitted 
after  the  noun  or  nouns  in  apposition;  as,  "For  David  thy 
father's  sake."  Here,  "  David  "  is  parsed  as  in  apposition  with 
"  father,"  and  in  the  possessive,  with  the  sign  of  possession 
omitted.  "  Here  lies  his  head,  a  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame 
unknown."  "  Youth,"  here,  is  in  the  possessive  (the  sign  of  the 
possessive  being  omitted),  and  is  in  apposition  with  "  his."  The 
meaning  is,  "  The  head  of  him,  a  youth,"  etc. 

11.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  separate  the  possessive  from 
the  governing  word  by  inserting  explanatory  clauses ;  as,  "  She 
extolled  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding." 
In  such  cases,  the  idea  of  possession  should  be  expressed  by  "of," 
or  in  some  similar  way.  Thus,  "  She  extolled  the  excellent  un- 
derstanding of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

12.  Certain  compound  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  are 
sometimes  separated ;  as,  "  Whose  house  soever.''^  This,  however, 
is  to  be  generally  avoided. 

13.  The  possessive  is  sometimes  governed  by  a  participle  used 
as  a  noun ;  as,  "  The  cause  of  John's  forgetting  the  lesson  was 
his  anxiety  about  the  excursion."  Here,  "John's"  is  in  the 
possessive  case,  governed  by  "  forgetting "  used  as  a  noun.  It 
would  not  be  correct  to  put  "  John  "  in  the  objective  case  gov- 
erned by  "  of."  "  Of,"  here,  governs  "  forgetting,"  not  "  John." 
"The  cause  of  John  forgetting  the  lesson,"  should  be,  "The  cause 
of  John^s  forgetting  the  lesson."  "  The  cause  of  him  not  doing 
it,"  should  be,  "  The  cause  of  his  not  doing  it." 


Models  for  Parsing. 

"  James  writes  a  letter  by  his  father's  permission."  "  Father's  '* 
is  a  com.  noun,  masc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  in  the  poss.  c,  gov- 
erned by  "permission,"  according  to  Eule  V.     (Quote.) 

"  George  Washington's  Farewell  Address  has  just  been  read." 
"  George  Washington's,"  a  complex  name,  is  a  prop,  noun,  masc. 
g.,  sing,  n.,  8d  p.,  poss.  c,  governed  by  "Address,"  according  to 
Eule  V.     (Quote.) 


BULE    V.  —  THE    POSSESSIVE    CASE.        123 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  the  possessive  case,  in  the  following 
sentences,  correcting  the  sentences  wherever  necessary : 

A  man's  manners  often  make  his  fortune. 

Asa's  heart  was  perfect  in  the  Lord's  sight. 

Helen's  beauty  caused  the  destruction  of  Troy. 

The  Representatives'  House  adjourned  on  the  fifth  of  June. 

The  Lord's  day  will  come  as  a  thief  in  the  night. 

This  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's. 

The  Archbishop  of  Baltimore's  letter  was  published  in  the 
daily  papers. 

William  and  Mary's  reign  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
in  English  history. 

John  and  Mary's  bookcase  is  filled,  partly  with  his  books,  and 
partly  with  hers. 

John's  and  Mary's  bookcases  are  both  filled  with  books. 

William  and  Lucy's  cloaks  were  lost. 

The  Princeton  and  the  Raritan's  crews  are  now  both  complete. 

If  he  learn  any  trade,  it  should  be  his  father's. 

He  was  tried  at  the  magistrate's  for  stealing  a  parcel  of  rings 
at  the  jeweller's. 

The  painting  of  Christ  Healing  the  Sick  is  a  picture  of  West. 

There  are  many  pictures  of  Washington's  on  tavern  signs. 

The  farewell  address  of  Washington's  was  read  on  the  anni- 
versary of  his  death. 

It  was  the  Sergeant-at-arms's  duty  to  execute  the  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives'  order. 

The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury's  opinion  was  preferred  to  the 
Archbishop  of  York's. 

Men  and  women's  shoes  are  made  very  difierently. 

Return  for  thy  servants'  sake,  the  people  of  thine  inheritance. 

He  took  it  out  of  Elishama  the  scribe's  chamber. 

For  Herodias'  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife. 

The  captain  and  the  lieutenant's  swords  were  much  alike  in 
appearance. 

Scott's  and  Butler's  store  was  destroyed  by  the  fire,  and  all  the 
goods  belonging  to  the  firm  were  burned. 

No  one  ever  doubted  Mad  Anthony's,  as  he  was  called,  bravery 
and  skill. 


124 


ENGLISH    GEAMMAR  —  SYNTAX, 


Review. 
Parse  all  the  Subjects  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 
Parse  the  objects  of  all  the  Verbs  and  Prepositions. 
Parse  all  the  Prepositions. 
Parse  all  the  Verbs,  except  those  in  the  infinitive  mood. 


RULE  VI. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  put  in  Apposition  with 

ANOTHER,  agrees   WITH    IT   IN   CaSE. 

Note.  —  A  word  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  another  of  the  same  kind, 
when  one  is  used  to  explain  or  identify  the  other  j  as,  "  Smith,  the  book- 
seller,  keeps  a  large  supply  of  books." 

NOTES. 

1.  The  words  in  apposition  may  be  in  any  case,  nominative, 
possessive,  or  objective. 

2.  When  a  word  is  in  apposition  with  another  in  the  possessive 
case,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  sometimes  omitted. 

"  This  is  the  wandering  wood,  this  Error's  den, 
A  monster  vile,  whom  God  and  man  do  hate." 

"  Monster,"  here,  is  in  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive being  omitted,  and  is  in  apposition  with  "  Error's." 

3.  A  noun  may  be  put  in  apposition  with  a  whole  sentence ; 
as,  "He  promptly  acceded  to  my  request,  an  act  which  redounds 
greatly  to  his  honor."  "Act"  is  here  nominative,  in  apposition 
with  the  whole  of  the  preceding  sentence. 

4.  When  several  words  form  one  proper  name,  as  "  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  these  words  are  in  apposition,  but  they  should  be 
parsed  together  as  one  complex  noun.  In  forming  the  plural 
number,  or  the  possessive  case,  of  such  complex  names,  the  sign 
should  be  put  only  at  the  end ;  as,  "  The  country  has  not  had  two 
Thomas  Jeffersons ;  "  "  Thomas  Jefferson's  works." 

5.  When  a  proper  name  has  a  title  prefixed,  as, "  General  Greene," 


RULE    VI. —  APPOSITION.  125 

"Dr.  Rush,"  "Mr.  Stockton,"  the  words  are  in  apposition,  but 
they  should  be  parsed  together  as  one  complex  noun.  In  form- 
ing the  plural  of  such  complex  names,  if,  besides  the  article, 
there  is  a  numeral  adjective  prefixed,  the  last  word  only  should 
be  plural ;  as,  "  The  two  Mr.  Stocktons."  But  if  there  is  no  nu- 
meral prefixed,  the  title  only  should  be  plural;  as,  "The  Messrs. 
Stockton,"  "The  Misses  Stockton." 

6.  One  of  the  most  frequent  instances  of  apposition  is  where 
the  proper  noun  of  an  object  is  appended  to  its  common  name ; 
as,  "The  river  Delaware."  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  English 
language  that  the  proper  names  o^  places,  when  so  appended,  are 
not  in  apposition,  but  are  put  in  the  objective  and  governed  by 
"of;"  as,  "The  city  of  Philadelphia." 

7.  The  phrases  "They  love  one  another,"  "They  love  each 
other,"  etc.,  afford  instances  of  apposition  that  very  frequently 
occur.  In  the  first  of  these  examples,  "one"  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive, and  is  in  apposition  with  "  they ;  "  and  "another"  is  in  the 
objective,  governed  by  "love."  The  meaning  is,  "One  loves 
another." 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"James  writes  a  letter  to  his  brother  John."  "John"  is  a 
prop,  noun,  masc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  obj.  c,  in  apposition  with 
the  noun  "brother,"  according  to  Rule  VI.     (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  Apposition  in  the  following  sentences, 
correcting  where  necessary : 

Alexander,  the  coppersmith,  did  me  great  harm. 

Harrisburg,  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  lies  on  the  bank  of 
the  Susquehanna. 

The  knife  was  given  to  me  by  my  brother  James,  he  that  was 
here  last  week. 

Mr.  Dale,  the  carpenter,  him  whom  you  saw  here  yesterday,  is 
dead. 

Godliness  with  contentment  are  great  gain. 

The  hare  is  beset  by  death  in  various  forms,  snares,  dogs,  and 
the  hunter's  gun. 
11* 


126  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

I  met  a  fool,  a  crazy  fool,  in  the  streets,  selling  pictures,  the 
works  of  his  own  idle  fancy. 

They  destroyed  the  vessel  and  returned  without  losing  a  single 
man,  an  exploit  which  was  highly  creditable. 

He  was  playing  ball,  an  amusement  of  which  boys  are  very  fond. 

We  Americans  call  England  our  mother  country. 

I  have  two  aunts  Mary. 

Review. 

Parse  all  the  Subjects  in  the  foregoing  exercises. 
Parse  all  the  Possessives. 

Parse  the  objects  of  all  the  Verbs  and  Prepositions. 
Parse  all  the  Verbs  and  Prepositions. 


RULE  VII. 

The  Verb  To  Be  has  the  same  Case  after  it 
as  before  it. 

Note. —  In  such  instances,  the  noun  or  pronoun  after  the  verb  is  not  in 
apposition  with  the  noun  or  pronoun  before  it,  but  is  a  part  of  the  predi- 
cate of  the  verb.  "James  commands  the  troops."  The  predicate  "com- 
mands" may  be  resolved  into  the  words  "is  commander  of."  "Com- 
mander" should  be  parsed  as  nominative  after  the  verb  is,  and  forming 
a  part  of  the  predicate. 

NOTES. 

1.  This  rule  applies  also  to  the  verb  become  and  to  several 
other  intransitive  verbs,  and  also  to  the  passive  voice  of  some 
transitive  verbs,  such  as  to  be  named,  to  be  called,  etc. 

2.  The  verb  to  be  in  the  infinitive  mood  used  as  a  noun  may 
have  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  after  it  without  any  other  noun  before 
it;  as,  "To  be  a  good  man,  is  not  so  easy  a  thing  as  many  people 
imagine."  Here,  "  man  "  should  be  parsed  as  used  indefinitely 
after  the  verb  to  be,  without  saying  what  its  case  is.  The  infini- 
tive mood  of  many  other  intransitive  verbs,  and  likewise  the  in- 
finitive passive  of  some  transitive  verbs,  may  also  have  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  after  them  used  indefinitely ;  as,  '*  To  live  a  consistent 


RULE    VII.  —  THE    CASE    AFTER    TO    BE.     127 

Christian  is  not  easy,"  "  To  be  called  a  Roman  was  counted  a 
great  honor." 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  in  what  case  the  noun  is  in  such  sentences.  The 
analogy  of  the  Latin  would  seem  to  indicate  the  objective.  Thus,  "  Not  to 
know  what  happened  in  past  years,  is  to  be  always  a  child."  Latin,  "sem- 
per Q&SQ puerum."  In  like  manner,  in  English  we  say,  "Its  being  me,  need 
make  no  change  in  your  determination." 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"James  is  commander  of  the  troops."  "  Commander "  is  a 
com.  noun,  masc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  nom.  c.  after  the  verb  "  is," 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  predicate,  according  to  Kule  VII. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Nouns  and  Pronouns  after  the  verb  in  the  same  case  with  the 
noun  or  pronoun  before  it,  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  where 
necessary : 

Thomson,  the  author  of  "The  Seasons,"  is  a  delightful  poet. 

The  Senate  caused  Scylla  to  be  proclaimed  Dictator. 

Education,  the  great  civilizer,  is  the  best  safeguard  of  that 
blood-bought  blessing,  liberty. 

This  is  Arnold's  grave,  that  vile  traitor  who  sold  his  country 
for  money. 

There  are  eight  Kings  Henry  in  English  history. 

Wine  has  been  his  ruin.  He  entered  manhood  a  pattern  of 
sobriety,  but  died  a  miserable  sot. 

When  I  reign  king,  thou  shalt  be  my  slave. 

Solomon  is  counted  the  wisest  man  of  all  ages. 

The  carriage  was  returned  a  perfect  wreck. 

To  die  a  Christian  is  more  desirable  than  to  reign  king. 

To  live  a  coward  accords  better  with  some  persons'  inclination, 
than  to  leave  the  world  a  hero. 

•  RevieViT. 

Parse  all  the  Nominatives,  Possessives,  and  Objectives  in  the 
foregoing  sentences. 
Parse  all  the  Verbs  and  Prepositions. 


128  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

RULE  VIII. 

A  Pronoun  agrees  with  the  Noun  or  the 
Pronoun  for  which  it  stands,  in  gender,  number, 
and  person. 

NOTES. 

1.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  a  Collective  noun,  in  the  sin- 
gular, the  pronoun  should  be  plural  if  the  idea  expressed  by  the 
noun  is  plural ;  as,  "  Send  the  multitude  away  that  they  may  buy 
themselves  bread,"  But  if  the  idea  expressed  by  the  noun  is 
singular,  the  pronoun  should  be  singular,  and  should  be  in  the 
neuter  gender.  "  The  class  is  too  large ;  it  must  be  divided  into 
sections." 

2.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  more  words,  connected 
by  and,  the  pronoun  should  be  plural.  Thus,  "  William  and 
Mary  were  both  there ;  I  saw  them."  "  He  and  Mary  were  both 
there ;  I  saw  them"  "  He  and  she  were  both  there ;  I  saw  them." 
"  Them  "  in  the  first  example  stands  for  two  nouns,  in  the  second 
example  for  a  noun  and  a  pronoun,  and  in  the  third  for  two 
pronouns. 

3.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  more  words,  connected 
by  and,  but  used  to  express  only  one  subject,  the  pronoun  should 
be  singular.  Thus,  "  He  knew  his  Lord  and  Saviour,  and  loved 
him." 

4.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  more  words,  in  the  sin- 
gular, and  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  pronoun  should  be  sin- 
gular. Thus,  "  Either  play  or  work  is  injurious,  Hit  is  carried  to 
excess." 

5.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  more  words,  connected 
by  and,  but  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  agrees  with  the  first 
person  rather  than  the  second,  and  with  the  second  rather  than 
the  third.  Thus,  "  William  and  I  had  our  skates  with  us." 
"  Our"  and  "  us  "  are  plural,  because  they  stand  for  two  subjects, 
"William"  and  "I."  But  one  of  these  subjects,  "William," 
being  in  the  third  person,  and  the  other,  "  I,"  being  in  the  first 
person,  the  pronoun  which  stands  for  both  iliust  be  in  the  first 
person.  We  would  not  express  the  meaning,  if  we  were  to  say, 
"  William  and  I  had  their  skates  with  them." 

6.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  more  words,  connected 


RULE    VIII. — THE    PRONOUN.  129 

by  andj  but  of  different  genders,  the  gender  of  the  pronoun  is  in- 
determinate, and  must  be  omitted  in  parsing ;  as,  "  I  saw  the  man 
and  his  portrait  side  by  side,  and  I  could  hardly  tell  them  apart, 
so  great  was  the  likeness."  Here,  "them"  stands  for  "man" 
(masc.)  and  "portrait"  (neuter);  the  gender  of  "them"  there- 
fore cannot  be  determined. 

7.  Words  of  different  genders  or  persons,  connected  by  or  or  nor, 
cannot  be  correctly  represented  by  a  single   pronoun.     Thus, 

"  Mary  or  William  has  lost book."     We  cannot  supply  the 

blank  with  her,  his,  or  their.     Again,  "  He  or  I  have  lost 

book."     We  cannot  supply  the  blank  with  his,  my,  their,  or  our. 

8.  A  pronoun  may  stand  for  an  infinitive  mood;  as,  "To  con- 
tradict an  aged  person  may  be  rude,  but  it  is  not  criminal."  A 
pronoun  may  stand  also  for  a  part  of  a  sentence;  as,  "  He  is  very 
witty,  but  unfortunately  he  is  aware  of  it.''  The  pronoun  in  such 
cases  should  be  in  the  third  person,  neuter  gender,  and  singular 
number.  But  if  there  are  two  or  more  infinitives,  or  clauses, 
making  distinct  subjects,  then  the  pronoun  should  be  plural;  as, 
"To  be  temperate,  and  to  use  exercise  in  the  open  air,  are  good 
preservatives  of  health,  but  they  are  not  infallible." 

9.  The  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely,  that  is,  with- 
out standing  for  any  particular  noun.  Thus,  "  Come  and  trip  it 
as  you  go,"  "  It  rains,"  "  It  was  he  that  did  it,"  etc. 

10.  The  gender  of  a  noun  is  sometimes  changed  by  personifi- 
cation. In  such  instances,  a  similar  change  occurs  in  the  gender 
of  the  pronoun  ;  as,  "  The  ship  has  lost  her  anchor." 

11.  We  frequently,  and  you  generally,  are  used  to  represent  the 
singular.  It  is  improper  in  such  cases  to  change  the  construction 
during  the  progress  of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  You  were  true  to  me  in 
the  day  of  trouble,  and  thy  kindness  I  can  never  forget."  It 
should  be  either  "  thou  "  and  "  thy,"  or  "  you  "  and  "  your." 

12.  Who  is  used  in  referring  to  persons;  Which  is  used  in  re- 
ferring to  inferior  animals,  to  things  without  life,  to  infants,  to 
collective  nouns  where  unity  of  idea  is  expressed,  and  to  persons 
in  asking  questions  where  the  particular  individual  is  inquired 
for.  "  Which  "  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  things ; 
as,  "  Our  Father,  which  art  in  heaven." 

13.  Tliat  is  used  instead  of  Who  or  Which  in  the  following 
cases: 

1.  After  two  antecedents,  one  requiring  who,  and  the  other 

I 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

requiring  which;   as,   "The  man  and  the  house  that  we  saw 
yesterday." 

2.  After  the  Superlative;  as,  "  It  is  the  best  book  that  can  be  got." 

3.  After  Same  ;  as,  "  He  is  the  same  kind-hearted  man  that  he 
used  to  be." 

4.  After  All,  or  any  similar  antecedent  expressing  a  general 
meaning,  limited  by  the  following  verb ;  as,  "  All  that  heard  me 
can  testify." 

5.  After  Who,  used  interrogatively,  as,  "  Who,  that  has  seen 
anything  of  human  nature,  can  believe  it  ?  " 

6.  After  It,  used  indefinitely ;  as,  "  It  was  he  that  did  it." 

14.  When  the  relative  has  two  antecedents,  of  different  persons, 
one  before  and  the  other  after  the  verb  to  be,  the  relative  agrees  in 
person  with  the  nearest ;  as,  "  I  am  the  man  who  commands  you." 
Where  a  different  meaning  is  intended,  the  relative  should  be 
placed  nearer  the  first  antecedent ;  as,  "  I  who  command  you,  am 
the  man." 

15.  The  relative  should  be  placed  near  its  antecedent  to  prevent 
ambiguity ;  thus,  "  The  boy  broke  his  slate,  whom  everybody  be- 
lieved incapable  of  doing  mischief,"  should  be,  "  The  boy,  whom 
everybody  believed  incapable  of  doing  mischief,  broke  his  slate." 

16.  The  relative  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "  The  letter  [which] 
you  wrote  me  on  Saturday,  came  duly  to  hand."  This  is  allow- 
able only  in  colloquial  language. 

17.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  [The  person] 
who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor." 

18.  What  is  sometimes  apparently  used  as  an  adverb,  but  in  all 
such  cases  the  ellipsis  can  be  supplied ;  as,  "  What  doth  it  profit 
a  man  ?  "  that  is,  "  [In]  what  [respect]  doth  it  profit  a  man  ?  " 

19.  What  should  not  be  used  for  the  conjunction  that.  Thus, 
"  I  don't  know  but  what  I  shall  go,"  should  be,  "  I  don't  know  but 
that  I  shall  go." 

Whichsoever,  whatsoever,  etc.,  are  sometimes  written'  as  two  words 
with  other  words  intervening ;  "  which  side  soever"  In  parsing, 
the  two  parts  of  the  word  should  be  taken  together  as  one  word. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

^*  John,  who  was  at  school,  wrote  a  letter  to  his  father."  "  Who  " 
is  a  rel.  pron.,  masc.  g.,  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  to  agree  with  **  John," 


RULE    VIII.  —  THE    PRONOUN.  131 

according  to  Eule  VIII.  (quote),  and  is  in  the  nom.  c.  to  "was," 
according  to  Rule  I.     (Quote.) 

"It "  (in  the  second  example  under  Note  1)  is  a  pers.  pron.,  n. 
g.,  and  in  the  sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  to  agree  with  "  class,"  a  collective 
noun  expressing  unity  of  idea,  according  to  Rule  VIII.,  Note  1 
(quote  Note), and  is  in  the  nom.  c.  to  "must  be  divided,"  accord- 
ing to  Rule  I.     (Quote.) 

"Us"  (in  the  example,  Note  5)  is  a  pers.  pron.,  standing  for 
"  William  "  and  "  I,"  two  words  of  different  persons ;  it  is  there- 
fore in  the  1st  p.,  according  to  Note  5,  Rule  VIII.  (quote  Note), 
pi.  n.,  according  to  Note  2,  Rule  VIII.  (quote  Note),  and  obj.  c, 
governed  by  the  preposition  "with,"  according  to  Rule  IV. 
(Quote.) 

"  That "  (in  the  first  example,  Note  13)  is  a  rel.  pron.,  relating 
to  the  two  antecedents,  "  man  "  and  "  house,"  and  used  instead 
of  "who"  or  "which,"  according  to  Note  13,  Rule  VIII.  (quote 
Note),  pi.  n.,  according  to  Note  2,  Rule  VIII.  (quote  Note),  and 
obj.  c,  governed  by  the  verb  "saw,"  according  to  Rule  III. 
(Quote.) 

"  He  reads  what  is  written."  "  What "  is  a  rel.  pron.,  and  re- 
lates to  the  object  of  "  reads,"  understood.  It  is  in  the  n.  g. 
sing,  n.,  3d  p.,  and  is  in  the  nom.  c.  to  "  is  written,"  according 
to  Rule  I.    (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  Pronouns  in  tho  following  sentences,  correcting  and  supply- 
ing omissions  where  necessary : 

He  only  who  is  active  and  industrious  can  experience  real 
pleasure. 

He  who  is  a  stranger  to  industry  may  possess  wealth,  but  he 
cannot  enjoy  it. 

Trust  not  him  whose  friendship  is  bought  with  gold. 

The  boys  replied  to  the  general,  "  We  come  to  you  to  complain 
of  your  soldiers ;  they  have  destroyed  our  playground.  We  re- 
quested them  not  to  disturb  it,  but  they  called  us  rebels." 

The  multitude  seek  pleasure  as  its  chief  good. 

The  Board  of  School  Controllers  have  just  published  its  annual 
report. 

If  your  rudeness  and  noise  continue,  it  will  effectually  hinder 
you  from  gaining  any  benefit. 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

A  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

The  army  was  eating  its  dinner,  when  it  was  surprised. 

The  family  of  Adam  include  the  whole  human  race ;  you  and 
I  are  a  part  of  them. 

The  silent  circle  fans  itself  in-doors,  while  the  coachman  with- 
out is  famished  with  cold. 

It  appears  to  have  been  John  and  James  who  were  guilty. 

What  is  it  that  vexes  you  ? 

The  moon  shed  her  pale  light  over  the  landscape. 

Lay  up  in  thy  heart  what  you  have  now  heard. 

Do  unto  others  as  thou  wouldst  have  others  do  unto  you. 

[Supply  relatives  before  parsing.]     The  ship 1  saw  had  a 

cargo was  very  valuable;  its  captain  was  a  man every 

member  of  the  crew  obeyed,  though was  composed  of  men 

of  the  worst  character. 

Who,  who  ever  had  a  man  or  a  beast,  which  served  him  faith- 
fully, would  say,  it  is  they  who  should  thank  me ;  I  have  nothing 
for  which  to  feel  grateful. 

Solomon  was  the  wisest  man  whom  the  world  ever  saw. 

It  is  the  same  picture  which  you  saw  before. 

All  which  beauty,  all  which  wealth  e'er  gave. 

Who,  who  has  any  sense  of  religion,  will  argue  thus? 

The  lady  and  the  lapdog  which  we  saw  in  the  window. 

The  king  dismissed  his  minister  without  any  inquiry,  who  had 
never  before  been  guilty  of  so  unjust  an  action. 

The  tiger  is  a  beast  of  prey  who  destroys  without  pity. 

This  is  the  friend  which  I  love. 

This  is  the  vice  whom  I  hate. 

The  infant  whom  you  see  in  the  cradle  is  sick. 

Who  of  those  men  came  to  his  assistance? 

Thou  art  the  man  who  has  done  the  crime,  and  I  who  suffers 
the  penalty,  am  innocent. 

Take  that  book  to  the  library,  which  I  left  on  my  table. 

There  was  a  bird  caught  by  the  fox,  which  was  web-footed. 

The  criminal  was  hung  by  the  sheriff,  who  committed  this 
shocking  murder. 

That  officer  was  selected  to  arrest  the  thief,  in  whom  the  Mayor 
placed  the  utmost  confidence. 

This  soldier  was  never  rewarded  by  his  captain,  who  was  the 
bravest  private  in  his  company,  because  he  differed  with  him  in 
politics. 


RULE    IX.  —  THE    ARTICLE.  133 

[Supply  relatives  before  parsing.]  The  house  I  live  in  and 
the  furniture  it  contains  are  the  products  of  the  industry  of  the 
many  toilsome  hours  I  spent  in  active  business. 

[Supply  antecedent.]  Who  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn 
lamb,  will  take  care  of  me. 

Whom  I  respect  I  obey,  not  those  I  have  no  confidence  in. 

[Insert  proper  pronouns  in  dotted  spaces,  and  verbs  in  the 
other.] 

The  school composed  of  both  sexes ;  . . . been  divided 

into  two  departments. 

The  Cabinet divided  in  .  .  .  opinion. 

The  legislature .  .  .  meetings  at  Harrisburg;  my  brother 

is  a  member  of  .  .  . 

Either  my  father,  or  any  other  man  could  have  had  the  right 
to  express  their  opinions. 

Hunger  or  thirst  I  can  bear;  they  give  pain  to  the  body;  but 
the  pangs  of  a  guilty  conscience  I  cannot  bear. 

She  or  Mary  must  have  left  their  candle  burning. 


5J<K« 


RULE  IX. 

An  Article  belongs  to  the  Noun  which  it 
qualifies  or  points  out.* 


NOTES. 

1.  The  noun  to  which  the  article  belongs  is  often  understood. 
In  that  case,  supply  the  noun,  and  parse  the  article  according  to 
the  Rule,  as  belonging  to  the  noun  thus  supplied.  Thus,  "  Turn 
neither  to  the  right  [hand],  nor  to  the  left  [hand]."  "  Henry  the 
Eighth  [king  of  that  name]  was  then  reigning." 

2.  If  there  is  an  adjective  before  the  noun,  the  article  must 

To  the  Teacher. —  it  might  perhaps  be  more  scientific  to  say,  "  The  Article  is 
connected  syntactically  with  the  Noun  which  it  qualities  or  points  out."  But  tlae 
rule  as  given  is  easier  for  the  memory,  and  gives  substantially  the  same  idea  to  tlio 
young  learner,  the  only  object  in  either  case  being  to  accustom  him  to  the  necessity 
of  pointing  out  the  noun  to  which  the  Article  is  thus  related. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  the  wording  of  Rules  X,  XI,  XII,  and  XIII. 
12 


134  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

precede  the  adjective;  as,  "a  virtuous  man,"  not  "virtuous  a 
man."  If  the  adjective  before  the  noun  is  all,  such,  many,  what, 
or  both,  or  if  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  too,  so,  as,  or  how,  the 
article  must  come  after  the  adjective ;  as,  "  all  the  men,"  "  such 
a  sight,"  "  too  serious  an  undertaking,"  etc. 

3.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  connected  belong  to  the  same 
subject,  the  article  is  used  before  the  first  only ;  as,  "  a  red  and 
white  flag,"  i.  e.,  one  flag,  partly  red  and  partly  white.  But,  when 
the  adjectives  belong  to  different  subjects,  the  article  is  used  be- 
fore each;  as,  "a  red  and  a  white  flag,"  i.e.,  two  flags,  one  red 
and  one  white. 

4.  In  using  the  comparative  with  than,  if  the  nouns  before  and 
after  "  than  "  both  refer  to  the  same  subject,  the  article  should  be 
used  before  the  first  only;  as,  "He  is  a  better  speaker  than 
writer;"  but,  if  the  nouns  refer  to  different  subjects,  the  article 
should  be  repeated  before  both;  as,  "A  man  makes  a  better 
soldier  than  a  woman." 

5.  A  or  an  is  joined  to  nouns  in  the  singular  number  only ;  as, 
"  a  man."  The  exceptions  to  this  are  apparent  rather  than  real. 
Thus,  "  a  few  things,"  means  a  certain  number  of  things,  and  not 
more ;  "  a  thousand  men  "  means  one  thousand  of  men,  and  not 
two  thousand,  etc.  The  a  should  be  parsed  as  belonging  to  the 
words  "  few,"  "  thousand,"  etc.,  used  as  nouns  in  the  singular, 
and  the  word  following  governed  by  of  understood. 

6.  A  marked  difference  of  meaning  is  produced  by  the  use  or 
the  omission  of  a  before  few  and  little.  "He  has  a  little  decency," 
means  he  has  at  least  some.  "  He  has  little  decency,"  intimates 
a  doubt  whether  he  has  any. 

7.  A  is  often  an  abbreviation  for  some  other  short  word,  at,  in, 
on,  etc. ;  as,  "  His  greatness  is  a  ripening."  In  such  cases  it  is 
not  an  article,  but  a  preposition,  and  is  to  be  parsed  accordingly. 

8.  "The  more  you  examine  the  book,  the  better  you  will  like  it." 
In  such  expressions,  the  article  must  be  parsed  as  limiting  the 
adverb. 

For  the  explanation  of  this  construction,  we  must  revert  to  the  earlier 
form  of  the  language.  In  its  Anglo-Saxon  form,  the  article  was  a  demon- 
strative pronoun,  and  was  regularly  declined,  like  the  corresponding  words 
in  Latin  and  Greek.  In  the  construction  now  under  consideration,  the 
article  was  in  the  case  called  the  Instrumental,  corresponding  in  the  main 
to  the  Latin  ablative.    ''By  that  you  examine  the  book  more,  by  that  you 


EULE    IX. — THE    ARTICLE.  135 

will  like  it  better."    The  English  phrase  has  an  almost  exact  equivalent  in 
tho  Latin,  Quo  majus,  eo  melius. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"  James  writes  a  letter."  "  A  "  is  the  ind.  art.,  and  belongs  to 
the  noun  "  letter,"  according  to  Rule  IX.    (Quote.) 

Exercises. 
Parse  the  Articles  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  where  necessary: 

At  first  the  enemy  gave  way,  but  afterward  he  repulsed  the 
left  of  our  line. 

Time  destroys  both  the  great  and  the  small. 

Glory  to  God  in  the  highest. 

A  too  severe  discipline  is  tyranny. 

The  banner  of  the  United  States  is  a  red,  a  white,  and  a  blue 
flag. 

Fire  is  a  better  servant  than  a  master. 

He  is  a  better  poet  than  a  historian. 

A  rosy-faced  and  pale  girl  were  seen  on  the  right  of  the  room. 

Truth  is  a  mightier  weapon  than  sword. 

Disease  is  a  greater  destroyer  than  earthquake. 

Mr.  C,  having  tried  the  stage  and  pulpit,  was  found  to  be  a 
better  minister  than  an  actor. 

He  had  a  few  pupils,  who  came  twice  a  week  to  receive  his 
lessons.    They  preferred  this  to  going  a  hunting. 

The  louder  he  spoke,  the  less  he  was  heard,  and  the  noise  made 
by  the  audience  became  the  greater. 

He  who  uses  filthy  language  has  a  little  decency. 

He  who  merely  is  ashamed  of  soiled  clothes,  shows  thereby 
that  he  has  little  decency. 

He  was  such  a  tyrant  that  a  few  persons  mourned  at  his  death. 

As  everybody  knew  him  to  be  a  thief,  a  few  persons  intrusted 
their  goods  to  him. 

Review. 

Parse  all  the  ^N^ouns,  Pronouns,  Verbs,  and  Prepositions  in  the 
foregoing  sentences. 


136  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX 


RULE  X. 

An  Adjective  belongs  to  the  Noun  or  the 
Pronoun  which  it  qualifies.* 

NOTES. 

1.  The  noun  to  which  the  adjective  belongs  is  sometimes  omit- 
ted ;  as,  "  Of  two  evils,  choose  the  least  .  .  .  ."  In  that  case, 
supply  the  omission,  and  parse  the  adjective  according  to  the 
Rule,  as  belonging  to  the  noun  thus  supplied. 

2.  An  adjective  sometimes  qualifies  an  infinitive  mood,  or  a 
part  of  a  sentence,  used  as  a  noun;  as,  "To  use  profane  language 
is  both  foolish  and  wicked."  In  such  cases  the  adjective  should 
be  parsed  as  belonging  to  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  part  of  a 
sentence. 

3.  The  infinitive  mood  or  the  participle  is  sometimes  found 
with  an  adjective  after  it  not  qualifying  any  particular  noun,  that 
is,  used  indefinitely ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  the  surest  way  of  being 
happy."  "  Good,"  here,  is  to  be  parsed  by  saying  that  it  is  an 
adjective  used  indefinitely  after  the  infinitive.  In  like  manner, 
"  happy  "  is  used  indefinitely  after  the  participle. 

4.  When  an  adjective  expresses  any  number  (more  than  one), 
the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs  must  be  plural;  as,  "ten 
pounds,"  not  "  ten  pound."  Some  nouns,  however,  have  a  plural 
meaning  with  a  singular  form ;  as,  "Ten  sail  of  the  line."  In 
such  instances  the  plural  form  of  the  noun  is  not  required. 

6.  When  two  adjectives  precede  a  noun,  both  expressing  num- 
ber, one  of  them  may  express  the  idea  of  unity,  the  other  that  of 
plurality;  as,  "one  hundred  men,"  "the  first  hundred  lines,"  etc. 
In  these  instances,  the  several  things  are  considered  in  their 
aggregate  capacity,  as  forming  one  whole.  The  rule  of  construc- 
tion is,  to  make  the  noun  plural,  and  put  the  singular  adjective 
before  the  plural  one;  as,  "the  first  hundred  lines,"  not  "the 
hundred  first  lines." 

6.  By  an  idiom  of  the  English  language,  many  is  sometimes 
used  before  the  singular  with  a  prefixed;  as,  "many  a  flower." 

7.  The  comparative  degree  generally  refers  to  two  objects,  the 
superlative  to  two  or  more;  as,  "John  is  the  taller  of  the  two," 
"  John  is  the  tallest  of  the  whole  number." 

*See  Note  to  Teachers  on  page  133. 


RULE    X. — THE    ADJECTIVE.  137 

8.  The  comparative  considers  the  objects  compared  as  belong- 
ing to  different  classes;  as,  "Eve  was  fairer  than  any  of  her 
daughters."  The  superlative  considers  the  objects  as  belonging 
to  one  class ;  as,  "  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  women." 

9.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  improper.  Thus, 
" A  worser  man,"  should  be,  "A  worse  man;"  "The  most  politest 
boy,"  should  be,  "  The  politest  boy." 

10.  Some  adjectives  express  a  quality  incapable  of  increase  or 
diminution ;  as,  chief,  extreme,  universal,  etc.  In  such  cases,  the 
comparative  and  superlative  terminations  should  not  be  used. 

11.  Adjectives  should  not  be  used  for  adverbs,  that  is,  to  qual- 
ify verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs.  "He  speaks  correct," 
should  be,  "He  speaks  correctly;"  "A  sufficient  long  time," 
should  be,  "A  sufficiently  long  time;"  "He  came  remarkable 
soon,"  should  be,  "  He  came  remarkably  soon." 

12.  Sometimes  the  adjective  seems  to  qualify  a  verb;  as,  "The 
egg  is  boiled  hard,^'  "  The  apple  tastes  sweet,^''  "  The  board  looks 
S7aooth,h\it  it  is  rough."  Here  the  meaning  is,  "The  Qgg  is 
boiled  until  it  is  hard ; "  "  The  apple  tastes  as  if  it  were  sweet ; " 
"  The  board  looks  as  if  it  were  smooth."  As  the  quality  is  thus 
connected  with  the  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  the  word  is  an 
adjective,  and  it  should  be  so  parsed. 

13.  In  poetry,  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of 
an  adverb;  as,  ^^ Slow  rises  merit  when  by  poverty  oppressed." 
In  these  cases,  the  word  is  an  adverb,  and  should  be  so  parsed. 

14.  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  None  but 
the  brave  deserve  the  fair ;"  "All  partial  evil  is  but  universal 
goody 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"James  writes  a  long  letter."  "  Long"  is  an  adj.,  in  the  poa. 
deg.  ("long,  longer,  longest"),  and  belongs  to  "letter,"  which  it 
qualifies  or  describes,  according  to  Rule  X.     (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  where  neces- 
sary : 

A  great  reward  has  been  offered  for  the  detection  of  the  criminal. 
The  best  men  are  liable  to  occasional  infirmities  of  temper. 
12* 


138  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

To  repine  at  the  prosperity  of  others  is  despicable. 

To  be  ever  active  in  laudable  pursuits  is  highly  meritorious. 

There  are  six  foot  of  water  in  the  hold. 

Ehode  Island  is  the  smaller  of  the  United  States. 

Spain  at  one  time  possessed  a  greater  commerce  than  any 
nation  in  Europe. 

The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  runs  the  faster  the 
lesser  weight  it  carries. 

Sing  the  three  first  and  the  last  stanzas  of  the  hymn. 

There  is  no  more  universal  sentiment  than  this. 

Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  on  man. 

He  writes  elegant.     She  sings  sweet. 

To  drink  wine  to  excess  is  destructive  of  health. 

To  practise  virtue  is  more  acceptable  to  God  than  the  sacrifice 
of  bullocks  or  of  rams. 

To  be  wise  to-day  is  the  way  to  commence  to  be  wise. 

To  remain  ignorant  in  a  land  like  ours  is  inexcusable. 

The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them ;  the  good  is  often  buried 
with  them. 

The  vain,  the  wealthy,  and  the  proud,  are  not  the  proper  per- 
sons to  be  imitated. 

"  Then  give  Humility  a  coach  and  six." 

That  style  of  dress  is  more  admired  by  some  than  this.  Let 
each  lady  indulge  their  own  taste. 

Those  who  go  to  war  must  expect  to  suffer  many  privations ; 
some  will  die,  and  others  lose  their  limbs. 

Every  station  in  life  has  its  cares. 

The  hay  is  suflficient  for  ten  heads  of  horses,  allowing  twenty 
pound  to  each  horse. 

The  ten  first  men  marched  two  by  two. 

Consumption  is  the  most  destructive  of  the  other  diseases,  and 
more  common  than  any  disease  in  the  United  States. 

Walls  of  solid  granite  are  no  adequate  protection  against  the 
enginery  of  modern  warfare. 

Revie'w. 

Parse  the  Articles,  Nouns,  Verbs,  and  Prepositions  in  the  fore- 
going sentences. 


EULE  XI. — THE  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUN.      139 
RULE    XI. 

An  Adjective  Pronoun  belongs  to  the  Noun 
OR  THE  Pronoun  which  it  qualifies  or  points 

OUT.* 

NOTES. 

1.  The  Distributives  and  Demonstratives  agree  in  number 
with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong ;  as,  "  This  sort  of  persons," 
not  "  These  sort."  The  distributives,  each,  every,  either,  neither, 
are  all  singular.  Of  the  demonstratives,  this  and  that  are  singular, 
these  and  those  plural. 

2.  The  personal  pronoun  should  not  be  used  for  the  adjective 
pronoun  ;  as,  "  those  books,"  not  "  them  books." 

3.  Either  is  sometimes  used  improperly  for  each;  as,  "Nadab 
and  Abihu  took  either  of  them  his  censer."  Grammatically,  this 
means  that  only  one  of  them  took  a  censer,  whereas  the  meaning 
intended  is  that  they  both  did  so.     It  should  be  "  each." 

4.  The  noun  is  often  understood  after  adjective  pronouns.  In 
such  cases,  supply  the  noun,  and  parse  as  usual ;  as,  "  Let  each 
....  do  his  duty." 

5.  None,  though  meaning  according  to  its  composition  no  one, 
yet  represents  nouns  in  the  plural  as  well  as  in  the  singular: 
"  We  hunted  for  berries,  but  found  none  ;  "  "  A  copy  of  the  work 
was  wanted,  but  none  was  to  be  had."  None  is  never  used  except 
when  the  noun  to  which  it  belongs  is  omitted. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"  James  wrote  this  letter."  "  This  "  is  a  dem.  adj.  pron.,  be- 
longing to  "  letter,"  according  to  Rule  XI.  (quote),  and  is  in  the 
singular  number,  to  agree  with  "  letter,"  according  to  Note  1, 
Rule  XL     (Quote.)  . 

(N.  B.  —  In  parsing  any  other  adjective  pronoun,  except  the 
distributives  and  indefinites,  the  last  part  of  the  Model  must  be 
omitted.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Adjective  Pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting 
where  necessary : 

Those  men  only  are  great  who  are  good. 
Those  men  who  despise  the  admonitions  of  their  friends  deserve 
the  evils  which  their  own  obstinacv  brings  upon  them. 

•See  Note  to  Teachers  on  page  133. 


140  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX, 

Those  sort  of  people  fear  nothing. 

Who  broke  this  scissors  ? 

He  adhered  strictly  to  his  profession,  and  by  those  means 
gained  success. 

Virtue  and  vice  are  as  opposite  to  each  other  as  light  and 
darkness ;  this  ennobles  the  mind,  that  debases  it. 

Them  kind  of  favors  did  real  injury. 

The  king  of  Israel  and  the  king  of  Judah  sat  either  of  them 
on  his  throne. 

Such  as  are  diligent  will  be  rewarded. 

Some  are  naturally  timid,  others  are  bold  and  active. 

Give  to  each  his  own. 

This  oats  is  of  those  species  called  wild  oats. 

These  sort  of  vegetable  productions  are  considered  mere  weeds. 

In  the  Bible,  tares  and  wheat  are  used  to  represent  different 
kinds  of  men ;  that,  to  denote  the  good,  and  this,  the  bad. 

Either  of  them  Siamese  twins  were  so  joined  to  the  other  at 
the  breast  that  one  could  not  move  without  the  other. 

Either  side  of  that  square  field  is  of  the  same  length  as  the 
three  others. 

Some  whom  I  considered  my  enemies  assisted,  while  none 
really  pitied  me ;  each  one  who  rendered  me  assistance,  did  so 
because  their  conscience,  and  not  their  love  for  me,  prompted 
them. 

The  smallest  of  the  twins  seemed  the  more  intelligent  of  the 
six  children. 

Samuel  was  the  strongest  of  all  his  brothers,  and  Mary  the 
neatest  of  the  other  members  of  the  family. 

It  would  be  a  queer  world,  if  every  one  might  do  as  they 
like. 

The  silence  of  nature  is  more  impressive,  would  we  understand 
it,  than  any  speech  could  be :  it  expresses  what  no  speech  can 
utter. 

The  greatness  of  a  gift  cannot  be  determined  by  its  absolute 
amount :  it  can  be  truly  ascertained  only  by  a  moral  standard. 

Revie-w. 

Parse  all  the  other  Pronouns,  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Articles,  and 
Verbs  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 


RULE    XII. — THJE    PAKTICIPI^E.  141 

RULE    XII. 

A  Participle  belongs  to  the  Noun  or  the 
Pronoun  which  it  qualifies.* 

NOTES. 

1.  The  participle  is  often  used  as  a  noun,  either  in  the  nomi- 
native case  or  in  the  objective ;  as,  "  Writing  letters  is  easier  than 
writing  compositions"  (nom.);  "In  writing  letters  he  soon  be- 
came expert"  (obj.).  In  these  instances,  the  participle,  as  a  part 
of  the  verb,  retains  its  government  of  the  objective. 

2.  The  participle  used  as  a  noun,  is  frequently  found  govern- 
ing another  noun  in  the  possessive  case;  as,  "  Much  depends  on 
John's  writing  his  letters  rapidly." 

3.  The  participle  is  sometimes  used  as  a  noun  merely;  as, 
"Avoid  foolish  talking  and  jesting."  When  so  used,  parse  the 
word  simply  as  a  noun  in  the  third  person,  neuter  gender. 

4.  The  participle  is  sometimes  used  simply  as  an  adjective ;  as, 
"Singing  birds  abound  in  summer,"  "He  is  a  learned  man." 
When  a  participle  is  so  used,  call  it  a  participial  adjective,  and 
parse  it  as  any  other  adjective. 

6.  When  a  participial  noun  has  an  article  before  it,  it  should 
have  "  of"  after  it ;  as,  "  The  learning  o/ Greek,"  not  "  The  learn- 
ing Greek."  In  such  sentences,  the  article  and  the  preposition 
should  either  both  be  used,  or  both  omitted.  The  latter  is  by 
far  the  most  common. 

6.  When  the  article  and  the  preposition  are  both  used  in  con- 
nection with  a  participial  noun,  the  meaning  is  generally  the 
same  as  when  they  are  both  omitted.  Thus,  "The  learning  o/ 
languages,"  means  the  same  as  "  learning  languages."  This, 
however,  is  not  always  the  case;  as,  "  He  confessed  the  whole  in 
the  hearing  o/ three  witnesses,"  "The  court  spent  an  hour  in  hear- 
ing the  witnesses."  It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  give  a  rule  which 
shall  direct  in  all  cases  when  to  use  and  when  to  omit  the  article 
and  the  preposition. 

7.  A  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  may  have  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
after  it  in  apposition  with  the  one  before  it:  as,  "Thomas,  being 
an  apt  scholar,  won  the  favor  of  his  teacher."  This  rule  applies 
also  to  the  participles  of  many  other  intransitive  verbs,  and  like- 

♦See  Note  to  Teachem  on  page  133. 


142  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK  —  SYNTAX. 

wise  to  the  participles  of  the  passive  voice  of  some  transitive 
verbs;  as,  "Solomon,  while  reigning  king,  built  the  temple," 
"  Washington,  being  appointed  commander-in-chief,  proceeded  at 
once  to  Cambridge." 

8.  A  participle  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  used  as  a  participial 
noun,  may  have  a  noun  after  it  used  indefinitely;  as,  "His  being 
a  good  penman  soon  gained  him  employment."  Here,  "  penman  " 
is  not  nominative  to  "  gained,"  nor  is  it  in  apposition  with  any- 
thing understood  before  "being,"  but  must  be  parsed  as  used 
indefinitely  after  the  participle  "  being."  This  rule  applies  also 
to  the  participles  of  many  other  intransitive  verbs,  and  likewise 
to  the  participles  of  the  passive  voice  of  some  transitive  verbs ; 
as,  "  Living  a  consistent  Christian  is  not  easy,"  "  Being  called  a 
Roman  was  counted  a  great  honor." 

9.  A  participle  may  be  used  indefinitely  after  the  infinitive  of 
the  verb  to  be,  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  To  be  forever  in  one  place, 
doing  nothing,  would  be  intolerable."  "  Doing,"  here,  belongs 
to  no  noun,  that  is,  it  is  used  indefinitely.  This  rule  applies  also 
to  participles  after  the  infinitive  mood  of  many  other  intransitive 
verbs,  and  likewise  of  some  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice ; 
as,  "To  remain  doing  nothing  would  be  intolerable,"  "To  be 
found  stealing  is  a  disgrace." 

10.  When  the  noun  to  which  a  participle  belongs  is  in  the 
nominative  absolute,  this  fact  should  always  be  mentioned  in 
parsing  the  participle. 

11.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  past  tense  and 
the  perfect  participle;  as,  "He  began  to  write,"  not  "He  begun 
to  write ;  "  "  He  did  it,"  not  "  He  done  it ; "  "  He  saw  it,"  not 
"  He  seen  it,"  etc. 

12.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the  past  tense  instead  of 
the  perfect  participle  after  the  auxiliaries  to  have  and  to  be;  as, 
"  He  has  gone  home,"  not  "  He  has  went  home;  "  "  It  was  writ- 
ten,''^ not  "  It  was  wrote^ 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"James,  having  written  a  letter,  sent  it  to  the  Post-office." 
"  Having  written  "  is  a  comp.  perf.  part.,  act.  v.,  of  the  irr.  trans, 
verb  "to  write"  (write,  wrote,  written),  and  belongs  to  "James," 
according  to  Rule  XII.     (Quote.) 


BULE    XII. — THE    PARTICIPLE.  143 

Exercises. 

Parse  the  Participles  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  where  neces- 
sary : 

Knowledge,  softened  by  good  breeding,  makes  a  man  beloved 
and  admired. 

Having  finished  his  speech,  he  descended  from  the  platform. 

The  youthful  poet,  while  walking  alone  in  the  woods,  fell  into 
a  reverie. 

Precept  has  little  influence,  if  not  enforced  by  example. 

True  honor,  as  defined  by  Cicero,  is  the  concurrent  approbation 
of  good  men. 

Much  depends  on  the  pupil  observing  the  rules. 

What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so 
hastily  ? 

I  remember  it  being  done. 

The  learning  anything  speedily  requires  great  application. 

By  the  exercising  our  faculties  they  are  improved. 

By  observing  of  these  rules  you  may  avoid  mistakes. 

This  was  a  betraying  the  trust  reposed  in  him. 

His  being  called  a  wit  did  not  make  him  one. 

The  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  I  shall  attempt 
neither  to  palliate  nor  to  deny. 

The  sun  rising,  darkness  flees  away. 

Thus  repulsed,  our  final  hope  is  flat  despair. 

He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 

He  was  greatly  heated,  and  he  drunk  with  avidity. 

I  would  have  wrote  a  letter. 

He  had  mistook  his  true  interest. 

The  coat  had  no  seam,  but  was  wove  throughout. 

The  French  language  is  spoke  in  every  kingdom  in  Europe. 

Having  taken  much  medicine,  and  continuing  to  grow  worse, 
my  distressed  mother  said  that  giving  me  medicine  seemed  use- 
less. Travelling  was  then  tried  with  encouraging  signs  of  my 
growing  better. 

His  lesson  being  learned,  and  his  other  duties  having  been 
performed,  he  was  to  have  a  ride  on  horseback,  he  selecting  the 
route  to  be  taken. 

Breaking  of  windows  by  the  throwing  stones  is  a  species  of 
mischief  which  is  as  wrong  as  dishonesty. 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Having  been  educated  a  teacher,  I  must  follow  my  profession. 

When  the  Pilgrims  had  come  to  America,  the  streams  were 
froze,  the  birds  had  flew  to  warmer  regions ;  the  fierce  wintry 
wind  blowed;  they  had  been  drove  from  their  comfortable  homes. 
To  forsake  the  land  of  their  birth  was  indeed  sad ;  but  to  have 
forsook  their  faith,  would  have  showed  a  want  of  sincerity  and 
fortitude. 

William  done  a  gross  act  of  injustice. 

Review. 

Parse  all  the  other  words  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  except  the 
Adverbs  and  the  Conjunctions. 


»«ic 


RULE   XIII. 

An  Adverb  belongs  to  the  Yerb,  Adjective, 
OR  OTHER  Adverb  which  it  qualifies.* 

NOTES. 

1.  Adverbs  are  generally  placed  before  adjectives,  after  verbs, 
and  often  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb ;  as,  "  He  is  vertj 
attentive."  "  She  behaves  well."  "  They  are  muck  esteemed." 
This  rule  is  far  from  being  universal  in  its  application.  It  is  in 
fact  impossible  to  give  any  one  rule  which  shall  determine  the 
position  of  the  adverb  in  all  circumstances. 

2.  Adverbs  should  not  be  used  where  adjectives  are  required, 
that  is,  to  qualify  nouns  or  pronouns.  Thus,  "  He  dressed  in  a 
style  conformable  to  the  ruling  fashion,"  not  "  conformably ^ 
"  The  dress  looked  pretty,^^  not  ^^ prettily ^  "  Pretty,"  here,  is  an 
adjective  describing  "dress,"  and  does  not  qualify  the  verb 
"  looked."    It  does  not  express  the  manner  of  looking. 

3.  From  should  not  be  used  before  hence,  thence,  and  whence, 
because  it  is  implied.  Custom,  however,  has  in  a  great  measure 
sanctioned  the  violation  of  this  rule. 

4.  Hither,  thither,  and  whither,  were  formerly  used  after  verbs 

*See  Note  to  Teachers  on  page  133. 


RULE    XIII. — THE    ADVERB.  145 

of  motion.    They  are  now  used  only  on  solemn  occasions.    Thus, 
"  Come  Aer«,"  not  "  Come  hither" 

5.  Where  and  when  are  often  incorrectly  used  instead  of  which 
and  its  adjuncts;  as,  "The  situation  where  (in  which)  I  found 
him,"  "  Since  when  (which  time)  I  have  not  seen  him." 

6.  There  is  often  used  as  a  mere  expletive,  its  only  force  being 
to  introduce  the  verb  before  its  nominative ;  as,  "  There  is  truth 
in  the  old  proverb."  In  such  sentences,  there  does  not  mean  in 
that  place. 

7.  How  should  not  be  used  for  that;  as,  "  He  said  how  he  would 
do  it."     It  should  be  "  that." 

8.  No  never  qualifies  a  verb.  When  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the 
verb,  no  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  instead  of  not;  as,  "  Will 
you  walk  or  nof"  It  should  be  "not,"  as  will  be  seen  by  sup- 
plying the  ellipsis.  Thus,  "Will  you  walk,  or  (will  you)  not 
(walk)?" 

9.  Nay,  no,  yea,  yes,  expressing  simply  negation  or  affirma- 
tion, contain  in  themselves  a  complete  sense,  and  do  not  belong 
to  any  verb.     The  same  is  true  of  Amen. 

10.  Two  negatives  are  improper,  if  intended  to  express  the 
same  negation.  When  so  used,  they  destroy  each  other,  and  are 
equivalent  to  an  affirmative.  Thus,  "I  cannot  by  no  means 
allow  it,"  should  be,  "  I  can  by  no  means  allow  it,"  or  "  I  cannot 
by  any  means  allow  it." 

11.  Sometimes,  when  one  of  the  negatives  (such  as  dis,  in,  un, 
im,  etc.)  is  joined  to  another  word,  the  two  negatives  form  a 
pleasing  and  delicate  mode  of  affirming;  as,  "His  language, 
though  simple,  is  not  inelegant,"  that  is,  "  It  is  elegant." 

12.  An  adverb  should.not  be  placed  between  the  infinitive  and 
its  auxiliary  to.  "  He  preferred  to  not  go  "  should  be  "  He  pre- 
ferred not  to  go."  "  He  determined  to  thoroughly  understand  it " 
should  be  "  He  determined  to  understand  it  thoroughly." 

Model  for  Parsing. 
"James  wrote  a  letter  hastily."     "Hastily"  is  an  adv.  in  the 
pos.  deg.  (hastily,  more  hastily,  most  hastily),  and  belongs  to 
the  verb  "wrote,"  according  to  Rule  XII.     (Quote.) 

"A  thoroughly  bad  man."     "  Thoroughly "  is  an  adv.  in  the 
pos.  deg.  (thoroughly,  more  thoroughly,  most  thoroughly),  and 
belongs  to  the  adj.  "  bad,"  according  to  Rule  XII.     (Quote.) 
13  K 


146  ENGLISH    GKAMMAK  —  SYNTAX. 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  Adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  make  the  necessary 
corrections  : 

A  very  smart  child  may  learn  more  rapidly  than  is  desirable. 

Economy,  prudently  conducted,  leads  very  rapidly  to  wealth. 

She  is  particularly  beautiful. 

The  most  cautious  are  frequently  deceived. 

We  should  not  be  overcome  totally  by  present  events. 

He  unaffectedly  and  forcibly  spoke,  and  was  heard  attentively 
by  the  whole  assembly. 

He  lived  in  a  manner  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and 
religion. 

They  hoped  for  a  soon  and  prosperous  issue  to  the  war. 

He  drew  up  a  paper,  where  he  too  frequently  represented  his 
own  merit. 

He  left  Philadelphia  last  December,  since  when  he  has  not 
been  heard  of. 

Whether  you  study  or  no,  you  never  know  the  lesson  at  the 
time  of  recitation.     You  don't  do  nothing  correct. 

He  did  not  say  whether  his  father  would  consent  or  no. 

He  will  never  be  no  taller. 

They  could  not  travel  no  farther. 

Covet  neither  riches,  or  honors,  or  no  such  perishing  things. 

It  was  cold  exceedingly ;  the  north  wind  incessantly  blew ;  I 
have  experienced  seldom  so  severe  a  winter. 

This  is  an  often  error  made  by  children  in  talking ;  it  is  of 
seldom  occurrence  in  writing. 

She  looks  coldly,  she  is  not  warm  enough  dressed. 

Some  persons  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  look  cold  upon 
those  who  treat  them  affectionate. 

He  arrived  at  the  house  where  I  live,  but  started  from  thence 
immediately. 

The  best  of  men  not  unfrequently  are  misled  by  the  machina- 
tions of  the  crafty. 

Revie^A^. 

Parse  all  the  other  words  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  except  the 
Conjunctions. 


EULE    XIV.  —  THE    INFINITIVE.  147 


RULE   XIV. 

The  Infinitive  Mood  depends  upon  some  Verb, 
Adjective,  or  Noun. 

Explanation.  ^  The  infinitive  limits  and  complements  the  meaning 
of  the  word  on  which  it  depends.  "  I  desire  to  sleep,"  "  Prone  to  sleep," 
"A  time  to  sleep."  Here,  if  we  have  not  the  infinitive,  the  meaning  in 
each  case  is  incomplete.  The  words,  "  to  sleep,"  are  needed,  both  to  fill 
out  the  sense  of  the  word  on  which  they  depend,  and  to  give  the  word  its 
intended  limitation. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  preposition  to,  which  is  used  in  making  the  form  called 
the  infinitive  mood,  and  which  is  generally  called  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  mood,  is  not  to  be  parsed  by  itself,  but  with  the  verb. 

There  is  no  more  incongruity  in  thus  combining  a  verb  and  a  preposition, 
than  in  combining  an  adverb  and  a  preposition,  as  in  **  at  once,"  or  in  com- 
bining a  verb  and  its  auxiliary.  To  is  in  fact  an  auxiliary  of  the  infinitive 
mood.  Such  combinations  are  among  the  most  common  contrivances  of 
language.  In  the  earlier  form  of  the  language,  the  infinitive  was  marked, 
as  it  is  in  Greek  and  Latin,  by  a  termination  of  its  own.  In  course  of 
time,  this  termination,  an,  was  dropped,  and  to,  which  in  the  verbal  forma- 
tion had  originally  been  used  for  quite  a  different  purpose,  came  into  use 
as  a  sign  of  the  infinitive. 

2.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  generally  omitted  after  the 
active  voice  of  the  verbs  bid,  dare  (to  venture),  need,  make,  see, 
hear, feel,  let,  and  some  others;  as,  "I  saw  him  (to)  do  it."  In 
the  passive  voice  of  these  verbs,  however,  the  "  to  "  is  generally 
expressed ;  as,  "He  was  seen  to  do  it." 

3.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  not  be  separated  from 
the  verb  by  inserting  between  "  to  "  and  the  verb  any  other  word 
or  words.  Thus,  "  I  am  resolved  to  not  go,"  should  be,  "  I  am 
resolved  not  to  go." 

4.  The  infinitive  seems  sometimes  to  depend  upon  other  parts 
of  speech,  besides  those  enumerated  in  the  rule.  Thus,  "  Be  so 
good  (w  (conjunction)  to  read  this  letter."  In  such  cases,  the 
sentence  is  elliptical.  Thus,  "  Be  so  good  as  (you  must  be  in 
order)  to  read  this  letter." 


148  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

5.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  apparently  without  depend- 
ence upon  any  word ;  as,  "  To  speak  plainly,  I  do  not  entirely 
approve  your  conduct."  This  construction  also  is  elliptical;  as, 
"  (m  order)  to  speak  plainly,"  etc. 

6.  The  infinitive  mood  is  frequently  used  as  a  noun,  and  at  the 
same  time  retains  its  government  of  the  objective  case.  Thus, 
"To  write  letters  is  easy."  Here,  "to  write,"  as  a  noun,  is  nomi- 
native to  "is,"  and  at  the  same  time,  as  a  verb,  governs  "letters." 

7.  Tense  of  the  Infinitive. — Whenever  the  action  or  event 
signified  by  the  infinitive  is  contemporary  or  future  with  respect 
to  the  verb  on  which  it  depends,  the  present  tense  of  the  infini- 
tive is  required.  Hence,,  verbs  expressive  of  hope,  desire,  inten- 
tion, or  command,  must  invariably  be  followed  by  the  present, 
and  not  the  perfect  infinitive.  Thus,  "  I  expected  to  have  found 
him,"  should  be,  "  I  expected  to  find  him." 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"  James  tried  to  write  a  letter."  "  To  write  "  is  a  trans,  verb, 
irr.,  act.  v.,  inf.  m.,  pres.  t.,  and  depends  upon  the  verb  "tried," 
according  to  Kule  XIV.     (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  Infinitives  in  the  following  sentences,  and  make  the  neces- 
sary corrections : 

A  man  anxious  to  reach  home  will  aim  to  be  at  the  station  in 
time  to  secure  his  seat. 

A  good  man  loves  to  do  good.    They  have  a  wish  to  learn. 

He  has  written  some  things  hard  to  be  understood. 

The  desire  to  be  rich  is  one  of  the  strongest  of  human  desires. 

A  man  eager  to  learn  the  truth  is  not  apt  to  fall  into  error. 

She  is  worthy  to  be  loved.    They  need  not  to  call  her. 

I  dare  not  to  proceed  so  hastily.     He  bade  me  to  go  home. 

He  was  seen  write  the  letter. 

It  is  the  difference  of  their  conduct  which  makes  us  to  approve 
the  one,  and  to  reject  the  other. 

He  was  seen  do  it,  though  I  heard  his  father  to  tell  him  not  to 
do  it. 

Help  me  to  finish  this  work,  and  you  will  not  find  the  time 
to  pass  so  slowly. 


EULE    XV.  —  THE    CONJUNCTION.  149 

I  did  not  intend  for  to  hurt  him. 

This  is  for  to  let  you  know  how  I  am  well. 

He  begged  to  have  been  released  from  his  prison. 

To  live  righteously,  soberly,  and  godly,  is  required  of  all  men. 

To  be  temperate  in  eating  and  drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  and  to  preserve  the  mind  from  tumultuous  emotions, 
are  the  best  preservatives  of  health. 

I  am  not  so  stupid  as  to  make  such  an  error. 

To  be  candid  with  you,  I  must  say,  you  did  wrong. 

Not  to  leave  you  under  the  impression  that  I  was  one  of  your 
supporters,  I  tell  you  I  did  not  vote  for  you. 

Revie^w. 

Parse  all  the  other  words  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  except 
the  Conjunctions. 


RULE  XV. 

A  Conjunction  connects  the  words,  sentences, 

S,  BETTV 
NOTES. 

1.  The  words  connected  by  conjunctions  must  be  of  the  same 
class.  Nouns  are  connected  with  nouns,  adjectives  with  adjec- 
tives, verbs  with  verbs,  adverbs  with  adverbs,  etc.  Nouns  and 
pronouns  are  here  counted  as  belonging  to  one  class. 

2.  There  is  sometimes  an  ellipsis  of  one  of  the  words  or  sen- 
tences, giving  an  appearance  of  a  conjunction  not  truly  connec- 
tive ;  as,  "  That  John  has  written  his  letter,  is  easily  proved." 
Here,  "  that "  seems  simply  to  introduce  a  clause  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  verb.  But  by  supplying  the  ellipsis,  "  (the  fact) 
that  John  has  written,"  etc.,  the  true  connective  character  of  the 
conjunction  appears. 

3.  Words  and  clauses  are  often  connected,  not  by  a  single  con- 
junction, but  by  two  conjunctions,  or  by  a  conjunction  and  an 
adverb,  corresponding  to  each  other;  as,  "Give  me  neither  poverty 
nor  riches." 

13* 


150 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAK — SYNTAX 


4.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  conjunctions  that 
have  a  corresponding  conjunction  or  adverb  : 
Neither,    — 
Either,      — 
Whether,  — 

Though,    — 

If. 

Both,        — 

Not  only,  — 


As, 


So,\ 


nor  ;  as,  It  is  neither  cold  nor  hot. 

or  ;  as,  Either  she  or  her  sister  must  go. 

or;  as,  Whether  he  will  do  it  or  not,  I  cannot 

say. 
yet ;   as.  Though,  he  was   rich,  yet  for  our 

sakes  he  became  poor. 
then ;  as,  If  he  speaks  true,  then  you  speak 

false. 
and;  as,  I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks,  and 

to  the  Barbarians. 
hut  also  ;  as,  Not  only  his  character,  but  also 

his  life  was  at  stake. 

-  as  ;  as.  My  land  is  as  good  as  yours  (equality). 

-  so  ;  as.  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be  (equality 

or  proportion). 

as;  He  is  not  so  wise  as  his  brother  (denying 
equality). 

that;  I  am  so  weak  that  I  cannot  walk  (conse- 
quence). 


Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  respecting  the  true  nature  of  the  word 
as,  many  grammarians  of  high  authority  calling  it  in  certain  circumstances 
a  relative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  who  or  which.  Others  again  prefer  to 
consider  it  in  such  sentences  a  conjunction,  and  explain  the  construction 
by  ellipsis.  Although  it  is  diflScult  in  all  cases  to  supply  an  ellipsis  which 
shall  be  perfectly  satisfactory,  yet  the  difficulty  seems  less  than  that  of 
considering  as  a  pronoun.  Thus,  "  Shun  such  as  (those  are,  who)  are 
vicious,"  "  To  as  many  as  (are  those,  who)  received  him."  The  ellipsis  is 
often  that  of  the  indefinite  it.  Thus,  "As  (it)  concerns  me,"  "As  (it)  re- 
gards me,"  "As  (it)  appears,"  "As  (it)  follows."  The  usage  is  not  entirely 
uniform  in  regard  to  the  verb  "  follows."  In  giving  a  specification  of  par- 
ticulars, almost  all  good  writers  use  the  phrase  "  as  follows."  Still,  there 
are  some  writers  of  high  authority,  who  make  the  verb  plural  when  the 
antecedent  word  is  so;  as,  "The  words  were  as  follow."  "As  follows," 
however,  is  far  more  common,  the  indefinite  "it"  being  understood. 

Sometimes,  as  is  preceded  by  such,  or  some  other  definite  antecedent, 
limiting  the  assertion  to  a  part  of  a  certain  class  of  objects,  and  requiring 
the  same  definite  limitation  in  the  succeeding  clause.  In  this  case,  it  is 
not  proper  to  supply  the  ellipsis  by  the  indefinite  "it,"  but  by  a  word  cor- 
responding to  tho  one  used  in  the  correlative  clause.     Hence,  if  the  ante- 


RULE    XV.  —  THE    CONJUNCTION.  151 

cedent  is  plural,  the  word  to  be  supplied  is  plural,  and  the  verb  must  be  so 
too.  Thus,  **  Such  (men)  a«  (those  who)  follow  a  profession,"  "  Such  of 
his  censures  only,  as  (those  which)  concern  my  friend." 

5.  The  comparative  degree,  and  the  words  other,  rather,  and 
else,  are  generally  followed  by  than ;  as,  "  John  is  greater  than 
James." 

6.  After  than  there  is  almost  always  an  ellipsis  of  several  words. 
In  supplying  these  words,  the  latter  clause  must  be  made  analo- 1 
gous  to  the  preceding ;  as,  "  John  has  written  more  than  James 
[has  ivritien)" 

The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  use  of  the  relative  who,  which 
sometimes  becomes  whom,  where  the  corresponding  clause  requires  the 
nominative;  as,  "Than  whom,  Satan  except,  none  higher  sat."  If  the  per- 
sonal pronoun  be  substituted  for  the  relative,  it  would  be  in  the  nominative 
case;  thus,  "None  sat  higher  than  he  (did)."  The  construction  of  the  rela- 
tive in  such  cases  seems  to  be  a  well  established  usage  of  the  language. 
In  such  a  sentence  I  would  not  call  the  conjunction  a  preposition,  but  in 
parsing  the  relative  I  would  say,  that  "than  r»  tometimca  folloioed  by 
WHOM,  even  when  the  corresponding  clause  requires  the  nominative." 

7.  Conjunctions  generally  connect  the  same  moods  and  tenses 
of  verbs;  as,  "He  reads  and  writes  well ; "  and  the  same  cases  of 
nouns  and  pronouns ;  as,  "I  saw  him  and  her." 

8.  When  conjunctions  connect  verbs  in  the  same  mood  and 
tense,  the  nominative  is  generally  not  repeated;  but  when  the 
verbs  connected  are  in  different  moods  or  tenses,  the  nominative 
should  be  repeated  before  each;  as,  "He  may  return,  but  he  will 
not  remain."  The  nominative  is  also  often  repeated  when,  in 
the  progress  of  the  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  positive  form  of 
expression  to  the  negative,  or  the  contrary,  or  when  a  contrast  is 
made;  "Though  I  admire  him  greatly,  yet  I  do  not  love  him" 
( from  pos.  to  neg.),  "  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  he  became  poor  " 
(contrast),  etc. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

"James  and  John  are  brothers."  "And"  is  a  conjunction, 
connecting  "James"  and  "John,"  according  to  Rule  XV. 
(Quote.) 

"  It  is  neither  cold  nor  hot."  "  Neither  "  and  "  nor  "  are  cor- 
responding conjunctions,  connecting  "cold"  and  "hot,"  accord- 
ing to  Rule  XV.,  Note  4. 


152  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

Exercises. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences,  correcting  and  supplying 
ellipses,  where  necessary : 

Forget  the  faults  of  others,  and  remember  your  own. 

Study  universal  rectitude,  and  cherish  religious  hope. 

Practise  humility,  and  reject  everything  in  dress,  carriage,  or 
.conversation,  which  has  any  appearance  of  pride. 

If  ye  do  these  things,  ye  shall  never  fail. 

It  is  neither  cold  or  hot.     ^ 

Neither  despise  the  poor,  or  envy  the  rich. 

Though  he  slay  me,  so  will  I  trust  him. 

So  as  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be. 

He  was  as  angry  as  he  could  not  speak. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  besides  the  name. 

He  or  me  must  go.    Neither  he  nor  her  can  attend. 

Anger  glances  into  the  heart  of  a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  only 
in  the  bosom  of  fools. 

To  profess  regard,  and  acting  differently,  mark  a  base  mind. 

Kank  may  confer  influence,  but  will  not  necessarily  produce 
virtue. 

She  was  proud,  though  now  humble. 

He  is  not  rich,  but  is  respectable. 

The  story  was  not  believed we  were  defeated. 

Wood  is  not durable iron. 

One  hour  is long another. 

He  ate  so  much he  became  sick. 

As  he  treated  others, he  expected  to  be  treated  by  them. 

Though  he  was  severe  with  the  vicious, he  was  lenient  to 

those  who  tried  to  do  right. 

It  was  done  better  by  him  than me. 

"Washington  was  a  better  man  than  Napoleon . 

The  teacher  ought  to  know  more  than  his  scholars . 

I  was  your  enemy,  but  now  am  your  friend. 

He  is  his  friend  to-day,  but  may  be  his  enemy  to-morrow. 

Unless  it  blossoms  in  the  spring,  the  tree  will  not  bear  fruit  in 
autumn. 

The  days  in  December,  you  know,  are  at  their  shortest,  and 
therefore  you  must  rise  by  the  dawn,  if  you  would  have  much 
daylight. 


RULE    XVI.  —  INTERJECTIONS.  153 

RULE  XVI.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
other  words. 

NOTES. 

1.  In  parsing  an  interjection,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  tell 
what  part  of  speech  it  is. 

2.  Sometimes  interjections  have  the  appearance  of  governing 
the  objective  case ;  as,  "  Ah  me  I "  But  such  sentences  are  always 
elliptical,  some  verb  or  preposition  being  understood ;  as,  "  Ah  I 
(pity)  me." 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES. 
To  be  Corrected  and  Parsed. 

I. 

1.  John  writes  pretty.  2.  I  shall  never  do  so  no  more.  3. 
The  train  of  our  ideas  are  often  interrupted.  4.  Was  you  present 
at  the  last  meeting?  6.  He  dare  not  act  otherwise  than  he  does. 
6.  Him  whom  they  seek  is  in  the  house.  7.  George  or  I  is  the 
person.  8.  They  or  he  is  much  to  be  blamed.  9.  The  troop 
consist  of  fifty  men.  10.  Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable 
present. 

n. 

1.  A  pillar  sixty  foot  high.  2.  His  conduct  evinced  the 
most  extreme  vanity.  3.  These  trees  are  remarkable  tall.  4. 
He  acted  bolder  than  was  expected.  5.  This  is  he  who  I  gave 
the  book  to.  6.  From  whence  came  they?  7.  Who  do  you 
lodge  with  now  ?  8.  The  Select  Council  was  not  unanimous  in 
its  opinion.  9.  If  he  be  sincere,  I  am  satisfied.  10.  Her  father 
and  her  were  at  church. 

III. 

1.  The  master  requested  him  and  I  to  read  more  distinctly.  2. 
It  is  no  more  but  his  due.     3.  Flatterers  flatter  as  long,  and  no 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

longer  than  they  have  expectations  of  gain.  4.  John  told  the 
same  story  which  you  did.  5.  This  is  the  largest  tree  which  I 
have  ever  seen.  6.  Let  he  and  I  read  the  next  chapter.  7.  Those 
sort  of  dealings  are  unjust.  8.  David  the  son  of  Jesse  was  theV 
\  youngest  of  his  brothers.  9.  You  was  very  kind  to  him,  he  said. 
10.  Well,  said  I,  what  does  thou  think  of  him  now? 

IV. 

1.  James  is  one  of  those  boys  that  was  kept  in  at  school,  for 
bad  behavior.  2.  Thou,  James,  did  deny  the  deed.  3.  Neither 
good  nor  evil  come  of  themselves.  4.  We  need  not  to  be  afraid. 
6.  He  expected  to  have  gained  more  by  the  bargain.  6.  You 
should  have  drank  goat's  milk.  7.  It  was  him  who  spoke  first. 
8.  Is  it  me  that  you  mean  ?  9.  Who  did  you  buy  your  grammar 
from  ?  10.  If  one  takes  a  wrong  method  at  first  setting  out,  it  J 
will  lead  them  astray. 

V. 

1.  Neither  man  nor  woman  were  present.  2.  I  am  more  taller 
than  you.  3.  She  is  the  same  lady  who  sang  so  sweetly.  4.  After 
the  most  strictest  notions  of  the  sect,  I  lived  a  hermit.  5.  There 
was  more  sophists  than  one.  6.  If  a  person  have  lived  twenty  or^ 
thirty  years,  he  should  have  some  experience.  7.  If  this  were  his 
meaning,  the  prediction  has  failed.  8.  Fidelity  and  truth  is  the 
foundation  of  all  justice.  9.  When  they  had  went  out,  they  saw 
no  man  there  save  the  farmer  only.  10.  Strive  not  with  a  man 
without  cause,  if  he  have  done  thee  no  harm. 

VI. 

1.  Iwrote  to,  and  cautioned  the  captain  against  it.  2.  The  girl's 
book  it  is  torn  in  pieces.  3.  It  is  not  me  who  he  is  in  love  with. 
4.  He  which  commands  himself,  commands  the  whole  world.  5. 
Nothing  is  more  lovelier  than  virtue.  6.  The  peoples  happiness 
is  the  statesmans  honor.  7.  Changed  to  a  worser  shape  thou  canst 
not  be.  8.  I  have  drunk  no  spirituous  liquors  this  six  years.  9. 
He  is  taller  than  me,  but  I  am  stronger  than  him.  10.  Solid  peace 
and  contentment  consists  neither  in  beauty  or  riches,  but  in  the 
favor  of  God, 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES.  155 

VII. 

1.  After  who  is  the  King  of  Israel  come  out?  2.  The  recip- 
rocations of  love  and  friendship  between  he  and  I  have  been  many 
and  sincere.  3.  Abuse  of  mercies  ripen  us  for  judgment.  4. 
Peter  and  John  is  not  at  school  to-day.  5.  Three  of  them  was 
taken  into  custody.  6.  To  study  diligently,  and  beliave  genteelly, 
is  commendable.  7.  The  enemies  who  we  have  most  to  fear  are 
those  of  our  own  hearts.  8.  Suppose  life  never  so  long,  fresh 
accessions  of  knowledge  may  still  be  made.  9.  Surely  thou  who 
reads  so  much  in  the  Bible,  can  tell  me  what  became  of  Elijah. 
10.  Neither  the  master  nor  the  scholars  is  reading. 

VIII. 

l.'Trust  not  him,  whom,  you  know,  is  dishonest.  2.  I  love  no 
interests  but  that  of  truth  and  virtue.  3.  Every  imagination  of 
the  thoughts  of  the  heart  are  evil  continually.  4.  No  one  can  be 
blamed  for  taking  due  care  of  their  health.  5.  The  product  of  the 
silver  mines  of  Mexico  and  ^^eru  far  exceed  those  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  6.  I  have  read  Popes  Homer,  and  Drydens  Virgil.  7. 
He  that  is  diligent  you  should  commend.  8.  There  was  an  earth- 
quake which  made  the  earth  to  tremble.  9.  He  was  very  much 
made  on  at  school.  10.  Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  h^.^— 
obedience  by  the  things  which  he  suffered. 

IX. 

1.  If  he  is  alone  tell  him  the  news ;  but  if  there  is  anybody  with 
him,  do  not  tell  him.  2.  They  ride  faster  than  us.  3.  Though 
the  measure  be  mysterious,  it  is  worthy  of  attention.  4.  If  he 
does  but  approve  my  endeavors,  it  will  be  an  ample  reward.  5. 
Was  it  him  who  came  last?  Yes,  it  was  him.  6.  I  shall  take 
care  that  no  one  shall  suffer  no  injury.  7.  Every  man  should  act 
suitable  to  his  character  and  station  in  life.  8.  His  arguments 
were  exceeding  clear.  9.  I  only  spoke  three  words  on  that  sub- 
ject. 10.  The  ant  and  the  bee  sets  a  good  example  before  dron- 
ish  boys. 

X. 

1.  Evil  communications  corrupts  good  manners.    2.  Hannibal  ( 
was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  whom  the  world  ever  saw.    3. 


156  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

The  middle  station  of  life  seems  to  be  the  most  advantageously 
situated  for  gaining  of  wisdom.  4.  These  are  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar, by  the  observing  which  you  may  avoid  mistakes.  5.  Take 
care,  little  children,  lest  the  dog  bites  you.  6.  My  exercises  are 
not  well  wrote,  I  do  not  hold  my  pen  well.  7.  Grammar  teaches 
us  to  speak  proper.  8.  She  accused  her  companion  for  having 
betrayed  her.  9.  I  will  not  dissent  with  her.  10.  Who  shall  I 
give  it  to  ? 

XI. 

1.  Who  are  you  looking  for  ?  2.  That  is  a  book  which  I  am 
much  pleased  with.  3.  That  picture  of  the  emperor's  is  a  very 
exact  resemblance  of  him.  4.  Everything  that  we  here  enjoy, 
change,  decay,  and  come  to  an  end.  5.  It  is  not  him  they  blame 
so  much.  6.  No  people  has  more  faults  than  they  that  pretend 
to  have  none.  7.  The  laws  of  Draco  is  said  to  have  been  wrote 
with  blood.  8.  It  is  so  clear,  or  so  obvious,  as  I  need  not  explain 
it.  9.  She  taught  him  and  I  to  read.  10.  The  greater  a  bad  man's 
accomplishments  are,  the  more  dangerous  he  is  to  society,  and 
the  more  less  fit  for  a  companion. 

XII. 

1.  Each  has  their  own  faults,  and  every  one  should  endeavor 
to  correct  their  own.  2.  Let  your  promises  be  few,  and  such  that 
you  can  perform.  3.  His  being  at  enmity  with  Caesar  and  Antony 
were  the  cause  of  perpetual  discord.  4.  Their  being  forced  to 
their  books  in  an  age  at  enmity  with  all  restraint  have  been  the 
reason  why  many  have  hated  books  all  their  lives.  5.  Do  not 
despise  the  state  of  the  poor,  lest  it  becomes  your  own  condition. 
6.  It  was  his  duty  to  have  interposed  his  authority  in  an  affair  of 
so  much  importance.  7.  He  spent  his  whole  life  in  the  doing  good. 
8.  Every  gentleman  who  frequented  the  house,  and  conversed  with 
the  erectors  of  this  occasional  club,  were  invited  to  pass  an  evening 
when  they  thought  fit.  9.  The  winter  has  not  been  so  severe  as 
we  expected  it  to  have  been.  10.  A  lampoon,  or  a  satire,  does  not 
carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

XIII. 

1.  She  and  you  were  not  mistaken  in  her  conjectures.  2.  My 
sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are  employed  in  their  respec- 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES.  157 

tive  occupations.  3.  He  repents  him  of  that  indiscreet  action. 
4.  It  was  me,  and  not  him,  that  wrote  it.  5.  Art  thou  him  ?  6. 
I  am  a  man  who  approves  of  wholesome  discipline,  and  who 
recommend  it  to  others ;  but  I  am  not  a  person  who  promotes  se- 
verity, or  who  object  to  mild  and  generous  treatment.  7.  Pros- 
perity, as  truly  asserted  by  Seneca,  it  very  much  obstructs  the 
knowledge  of  ourselves.  8.  To  do  to  others  as  we  would  that  they 
should  do  to  us,  it  is  our  duty.  9.  This  grammar  was  purchased 
at  Ogle's  the  bookseller's.     10.  The  council  was  not  unanimous. 

XIV. 

1.  Who  spilt  the  ink  upon  the  table  ?  Him.  2.  Who  lost  this 
book  ?  Me.  3.  Whose  pen  is  this  ?  Johns.  4.  There  is,  in  fact,  no 
impersonal  verbs  in  any  language.  5.  A  man  may  see  a  meta- 
phor or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  them  in  a  descrip- 
tion. 6.  I  had  no  sooner  placed  her  at  my  right  hand,  by  the  fire, 
but  she  opened  to  me  the  reason  of  her  visit.  7.  A  prudent  wife, 
she  shall  be  blessed.  8.  The  house  you  speak  of,  it  cost  me  five 
thousand  dollars.  9.  Not  only  the  counsel's  and  attorney's,  but 
the  judge's  opinion  also  favored  his  cause.  10.  The  vicious  in- 
clined dog  was  shot  before  he  had  bit  any  of  the  children. 

XY. 

1.  This  palace  has  been  the  grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's.  2.  They 
did  not  every  man  cast  away  the  abomination  of  their  eyes.  3. 
Whose  works  are  these?  They  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of 
men's.  4.  The  mighty  rivals  are  now  at  length  agreed.  5.  The 
time  of  William  making  the  experiment  at  length  arrived.  6. 
If  we  alter  the  situation  of  any  of  the  words,  we  shall  presently  be 
sensible  of  the  melody  suffering.  7.  This  picture  of  the  king's 
does  not  much  resemble  him.  8.  These  pictures  of  the  king  were 
sent  to  him  from  Italy.  9.  I  ofier  observations,  that  a  long  and 
checkered  pilgrimage  have  enabled  me  to  make  on  man.  10. 
Clelia  is  a  vain  woman,  who,  if  we  do  not  flatter,  she  will  be  dis- 
gusted. 

XVI. 

1.  The  orators  did  not  forget  to  enlarge  themselves  on  so  pop- 
ular a  subject.    2.  He  acted  conformable  with  his  instructions,  and 
14 


168  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

cannot  be  censured  justly.  3.  No  person  could  speak  stronger, 
nor  behave  nobler,  than  our  young  advocate,  for  the  cause  of  true 
religious  toleration.  4.  They  were  studious  to  ingratiate  with 
those  who  it  was  dishonorable  to  favor.  5.  The  house  framed  a 
remonstrance,  where  they  spoke  with  great  freedom  of  the  king's 
prerogative.  6.  Neither  flatter  or  contemn  the  rich  or  the  great. 
7.  Many  would  exchange  gladly  their  honors,  beauty,  and  riches, 
N^for  that  more  quiet  and  humbler  station,  which  thou  art  now  dis- 
satisfied with.  8.  High  hopes  and  florid  views  is  a  great  enemy 
to  tranquillity.  9.  Many  persons  will  not  believe  but  what  they 
are  free  from  prejudices.  10.  I  will  lie  me  down  in  peace,  and 
take  my  rest. 

XVII. 

1.  This  word  I  have  only  found  in  Spenser.  2.  The  king  being 
apprised  of  the  conspiracy,  he  fled  from  Jerusalem.  3.  A  too 
great  variety  of  studies  dissipate  and  weaken  the  mind.  4.  James 
was  resolved  to  not  indulge  himself  in  such  a  cruel  amusement. 

6.  They  admired  the  countryman's,  as  they  called  him,  candor 
and  uprightness.  6.  The  pleasure  or  pain  of  one  passion  difler 
from  those  of  another.  7.  The  court  of  Spain,  who  gave  the 
order,  were  not  aware  of  the  consequences.  8.  There  was  much 
spoke  and  wrote  on  each  side  of  the  question ;  but  I  have  chose  to 
suspend  my  decision.  9.  Religion  raises  men  above  themselves ; 
irreligion  sinks  them  beneath  the  brutes ;  that  binds  them  down 
to  a  poor  pitiable  speck  of  perishable  earth ;  this  opens  for  them 
a  prospect  to  the  skies.  10.  Temperance  and  exercise,  howsoever 
little  they  may  be  regarded,  they  are  the  best  means  of  preserving 
health. 

XVIII. 

1.  To  despise  others  on  account  of  their  poverty,  or  to  value 
ourselves  for  our  wealth,  are  dispositions  highly  culpable.  2.  As 
his  misfortunes  were  the  fruit  of  his  own  obstinacy,  a  few  per- 
sons pitied  him.  3.  They  were  judged  every  man  according  to 
their  works.  4.  Eiches  is  the  bane  of  human  happiness.  5. 
When  Garrick  appeared,  Peter  was  for  some  time  in  doubt  whether 
it  could  be  him  or  not.     6.  The  company  was  very  numerous. 

7.  Eobert  Burns'  poetry  was  remarkable.  8.  Chambers'  Cyclo- 
paedia is  a  valuable  work.    9.  They  were  obliged  to  contribute 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES.  159 

more  than  us.    10.  The  Barons  had  little  more  to  rely  on,  besides 
the  power  of  their  families. 

XIX. 

1.  The  sewers  must  be  kept  so  clear,  as  the  water  may  run  away. 
2.  Such  among  us  who  follow  that  business  should  abandon  it  at 
once.  3.  No  body  is  so  sanguine  to  hope  for  it.  4.  She  behaved 
unkinder  than  I  expected.  5.  Agreeable  to  your  request  I  send 
this  letter.  6.  She  is  exceeding  fair.  7.  Thomas  is  not  as  docile 
as  his  sister.  8.  There  was  no  other  book  but  this.  9.  He  died 
by  a  fever.    10.  My  sister  and  I  waited  till  they  were  called. 


XX. 

1.  The  friends  and  amusements  which  he  preferred  corrupted 
his_naorals.  /2.  Henry,  though  at  first  he  showed  an  unwilling-^ 
/ness^yet  aKerwards  he  granted  her  request.  3.  Him  and  her  live 
very  happily  together.  4.  She  invited  Jane  and  I  to  see  her  new 
dress.  5.  She  uttered  such  cries  that  pierced  the  heart  of  every 
one  who  heard  them.     6.  Maria  is  not  as  clever  as  her  sister  Ann. 

7.  Though  he  promises  ever  so  solemnly,  I  will  not  believe  him. 

8.  The  full  moon  was  no  sooner  up,  in  all  its  brightness,  but  he 
opened  to  them  the  gate  of  paradise.  9.  It  rendered  the  progress 
very  slow  of  the  new  invention.  10.  This  book  is  Thomas',  that 
is  James'. 

XXI. 

l.Who,  who  has  the  judgment  of  a  man,  would  have  drawn  such 
an  inference?  2.  George  was  the  most  diligent  scholar  whom  I 
ever  knew.  3.  I  have  observed  some  children  to  use  deceit.  4. 
He  durst  not  to  displease  his  master.  6.  The  hopeless  delinquents 
might,  each  in  their  turn,  adopt  the  expostulatory  language  of 
Job.  6.  Several  of  our  English  words,  some  centuries  ago,  had 
different  meanings  to  those  they  have  now.  7.  With  this  booty, 
he  made  off  to  a  distant  part  of  the  country,  where  he  had  reason 
to  believe  that  neither  he  nor  his  master  were  known.  8.  I  live 
at  Philadelphia.  9.  Which  of  the  two  masters,  says  SenecaA 
shall  we  most  esteem  ?  He  who  strives  to  correct  his  scholars  by 
prudent  advice  and  motives  of  honor,  or  another  who  will  lash  them 
severely  for  not  repeating  their  lessons  as  they  ought  I    10.  But 


160  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  SYNTAX. 

she  always  behaved  with  great  severity  to  her  maids ;  and  if  any  \ 
one  of  them  were  negligent  of  their  duty,  or  made  a  slip  in  their  I 
conduct,  nothing  would  serve  her  but  burying  the  poor  girl  alive.  ^ 

XXII. 

1.  They  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor.  2.  Bring  Charles'  boot 
with  you,  when  you  come.  3.  The  first  Christians  of  the  gentile 
world  made  a  simple  and  entire  transition  from  a  state  as  bad, 
if  not  worse,  than  that  of  entire  ignorance,  to  the  Christianity  of 
the  New  Testament.  4.  The  Duke  had  not  behaved  with  that  loyalty 
as  was  expected.  5.  Milton  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  his  own  genius,  and  to  know  what  it  was  that  nature  had  be- 
stowed upon  him  more  bountifully  than  upon  others.  6.  He  only 
promised  me  a  loan  of  the  book  for  two  days.  7.  I  once  in- 
tended to  have  written  a  poem.  8.  A  very  slow  child  will  often ") 
be  found  to  get  lessons  by  heart  as  soon  as,  nay,  sometimes  sooner/ 
than  one  who  is  ten  times  as  intelligent.  9.  It  is  then  from  a 
cultivation  of  the  perceptive  faculties,  that  we  only  can  attain 
those  powers  of  conception  which  are  essential  to  taste.  10. 
Every  one,  man  or  woman,  thinks  their  own  opinion  is  right ; 
if  they  thought  it  wrong,  it  would  no  longer  be  their  opinion ; 
but  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  regarding  ourselves  infalli- 
ble, and  being  firmly  convinced  of  the  truth  of  our  creed. 

XXIII. 

1.  Conversation  is  the  business,  and  let  every  one  that  please 
add  their  opinion  freely.  2.  There  are  many  more  shining  qual- 
ities in  the  mind  of  man,  but  there  are  none  so  useful,  as  discre- 
tion. 3.  Frequent  commission  of  crimes  harden  the  heart.  4.  In 
our  earliest  youth  the  contagion  of  manners  are  observable.  5. 
The  pyramids  of  Egypt  has  stood  more  than  three  thousand  years. 
6.  A  few  pangs  of  conscience  now  and  then  interrupts  his  pleasure, 
and  whispers  to  him  that  he  once  had  better  thoughts.  7.  There 
is  more  cultivators  of  the  earth  than  of  their  own  hearts.  8. 
Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons.  9. 
Not  one  of  those  whom  thou  sees  clothed  in  purple  are  happy. 
10.  Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  medi- 
ocrity. 


11.  ANALYSIS. 
General  Observations. 

1.  The  word  Analysis  is  from  the  Greek  avdAvaiq,  dissolution, 
taking  apart,  or  separation  of  a  compound  into  its  constituent 
parts. 

2.  Analysis,  in  grammar,  treats  of  the  separation  of  a  sentence 
into  the  parts  which  compose  it. 

3.  The  Analysis  of  sentences  is  a  matter  of  logic  rather  than 
of  grammar.  Some  attention  to  Analysis,  however,  even  in  ele- 
mentary studies,  is  important.  By  means  of  it,  the  syntactical 
relations  of  words  are  more  clearly  apprehended.  It  helps  also 
to  cultivate  the  logical  faculty,  which  is  at  the  basis  of  all  sound 
knowledge. 

4.  The  study  of  Analysis  may  precede  that  of  Syntax,  or  may 
follow  it.  There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  either 
course.  The  subject  is  presented  in  a  separate  chapter,  so  that 
the  teacher  may  follow  his  judgment  in  the  matter. 

5.  The  subject  is  divided  into  three  heads,  1.  Parts  of  a  Sentence, 
2.  Kinds  of  Sentences,  3.  Explanation  of  Terms. 


I.  PARTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

A  Sentence  is  a  number  of  words  put  together  so  as 
to  make  complete  sense;  as,  "Man  is  mortal. '^ 

Note.  —  A  sentence  may  consist  of  a  single  word;  as,  *♦  Depart." 

The  Essential  Parts  of  a  sentence  are  two,  The  Sub- 
ject and  the  Predicate. 

The  Subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 

The  Predicate  is  what  is  affirmed  or  asserted  of  the 
Subject. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Man  lives,"  man  is  the  Subject,  lives  is  the  Predicate. 
14*  L  161 


162  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

There  cannot  be  a  sentence  without  a  Subject,  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

In  the  sentence,  ^'Depart,"  the  Subject  is  thou  or  you  understood. 

There  cannot  be  a  sentence  without  a  Predicate,  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

A  Subject  and  a  Predicate,  togetlier,  make  a  sentence. 


I.   THE  SUBJECT. 

Distinction  of  Grammatical  Subject  and  Logical 
Subject. 

The  Grammatical  Subject  is  simply  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  is  nominative  to  the  verb. 

Examples. — "  Man  lives."  "  The  good  old  man  still  lives."  "He  lives." 
"He,  the  eloquent  and  able  defender  of  Christianity,  still  lives."  In  the 
first  two  examples,  the  Grammaticial  Subject  is  man ;  in  the  other  two,  it 
is  he. 

The  Logical  Subject  is  not  simply  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun which  is  nominative  to  the  verb,  but  includes  also 
all  the  attendant  words  which  modify  in  any  way  the 
meaning  of  the  nominative. 

In  the  second  example  above,  the  Logical  Subject  is  The  good  old  man  ; 
in  the  fourth  example,  it  is  He,  the  eloquent  and  able  defender  of  Chriati" 
anity. 

The  Logical  Subject,  then,  includes   all  the  words 
which,  taken  together,  form  the  subject  of  discourse. 
The  Logical  Subject  is  the  one  treated  of  in  Analysis. 

In  the  remainder  of  this  chapter,  it  will  be  understood  that  the  term 
Subject,  unless  otherwise  specified,  means  the  Logical  Subject. 

The  Subject  is  of  three  kinds.  Simple,  Complex,  and 
Compound.  | 


ANALYSIS.  163 

I.   SIMPLE  SUBJECTS. 

A  Simple  Subject  is  a  single  noun  or  pronoun,  with 
no  modifying  word  or  words,  and  nominative  to  the  verb. 

The  Logical  Subject  and  the  Grammatical  Subject  are  here  the 
same. 

Examples. — "  James  wrote  the  letter."  "  He  wrote  the  letter."  "  Henry 
Chiy  rose  in  his  place,  and  addressed  the  House."  "  Rivera  flow  into  the 
sea." 

II.    COMPLEX  SUBJECTS. 

A  Complex  Subject  is  one  in  which  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun nominative  to  the  verb  is  accompanied  by  some 
other  word  or  words  which  in  some  way  limit  or  modify 
its  meaning. 

Example. — **  The  miserable  man,  overwhelmed  with  debt,  and  convicted  of 
crime,  lived  a  most  unhappy  life."  Here  the  subject  is  "man"  with  all 
the  other  accompanying  words  in  italics.  These  accompanying  words 
modify  or  limit  the  word  "  man."  They  all,  taken  together,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  which  the  affirmation  is  made. 

Adjuncts  to  the  Subject. 

Adjuncts  are  the  accompanying  words  which  make  a 
Subject  complex. 

The  Adjuncts  of  the  Subject  are  of  three  kinds, 
namely.  Single  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

A  Phrase  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  meaning,  but 
not  containing  a  predicate-verb,  and  not  making  by  themselves 
complete  sense. 

A  Clause  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  meaning,  and 
containing  a  verb  with  its  subject,  and  so  making  by  theniselves 
complete  sense,  but  not  independent,  being  used  to  modify  or 
qualify  some  other  word. 

The  following  are  examples  of  each  of  these  three  kinds  of 
adjuncts. 


164  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1.  Single  Words. — ''The  good  man  has  departed."  Here  "the"  and 
"good"  are  single  words,  modifying  or  qualifying  the  subject  "man." 

2.  Phrases.  — "  The  good  man,  in  the  midst  of  hia  use/ulnens,  has  de- 
parted." Here  the  words,  "  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness,"  form  a  modi- 
fying or  qualifying  phrase. 

3.  Clauses.  —  "  The  good  man,  toho  had  gained  great  renown,  departed." 
Here  the  words,  "  who  had  gained  great  renown,"  form  a  modifying  or 
qualifying  clause. 

Ways  in  which  Adjuncts  modify  the  Subject. 
The  Subject  is  modified  by  Adjuncts,  as  follows: 

1.  By  an  article;  as,  "The  man  has  arrived." 

2.  By  an  adjective;  as,  "Good  men  are  few." 

3.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  apposition ;  as,  "  James  Brown, 
artist,  is  dead  "  ;  "  Elizabeth  herself  has  arrived." 

4.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive ;  as,  "  Winter's  frosts 
have  disappeared  "  ;  "  Your  time  has  come." 

5.  By  a  preposition  and  its  object;  as,  "Frosts  of  winter  dis- 
appear."" 

6.  By  a  participle ;  as,  "  Brothers  divided  are  a  sad  sight." 

7.  By  a  verb  in  the  infinitive ;  as,  "  The  time  to  study  should 
not  be  lost." 

8.  By  a  clause;  as,  "Lessons  which  are  easy  are  apt  to  be 
neglected  " ;  "  The  fear  that  he  might  be  detected  kept  him  from 
committing  the  crime." 


Model.  —  "A  large  increase  of  wealth  might  make  him  care- 
less." 
In  this  sentence, 

1.  The  simple  subject  is  increase. 

2.  Its  adjuncts  or  modifiers  are  the  article  a,  the  adjective 
large,  and  the  preposition  and  its  object,  of  wealth. 

3.  The  whole  complex  subject  is  a  large  increase  of  wealth. 

Exercises. — Give,  (1.)  The  simple  subject,  (2.)  The  adjuncts  or 
modifiers  of  the  simple  subject,  (3.)  The  whole  complex  subject, 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  thorough  knowledge  of  Scripture  helps  us  in  under- 
standing all  other  truth. 


ANALYSIS.  165 

2.  An  anxious  desire  to  do  right  was  manifest  in  all  his  con- 
duct. 

3.  James's  impetuous  disposition,  which  ought  to  have  been 
checked,  was  allowed  to  have  free  sway. 

4.  The  great  apostle  Paul  himself  was  subject  to  calumny. 

5.  A  selfish  desire  for  wealth,  unchecked,  is  apt  to  pervert  the 
moral  principles. 

Ways  in  which  the  Adjuncts  of  the  Subject  are 
modified  by  other  Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts  of  the  Subject  may  themselves  be  modified  by  other 
words,  as  follows : 

1.  A  Noun  used  as  an  adjunct  of  the  subject  may  be  modified 
in  all  respects  as  the  principal  noun. 

Example. — "  James  Applegate,  the  old  man  that  you  spoke  of,  has  left 
for  parts  unknown." 

2.  An  Adjective  used  as  an  adjunct  of  the  subject  may  be  modi- 
fied, (1.)  By  a  preposition  and  its  object,  (2.)  By  an  infinitive,  (3.) 
By  an  adverb. 

Examples. — "A  man  merciful  in  disposition."  "A  man  quick  to  resent 
injury."     "A  very  abundant  harvest." 

Note. — An  adverb  used  to  modify  an  adjunct  adjective  may  itself  be 
modified,  (1.)  By  another  adverb,  (2.)  By  a  preposition  and  its  object.  Ex- 
amples :  "  Most  thoroughly  wicked  " ;  "  An  essay  replete,  agreeably  to  ex- 
pectation, with  varied  knowledge." 

3.  A  Participle,  or  an  Infinitive,  used  as  an  adjunct  of  the 
subject,  may  be  modified,  (1.)  By  an  object,  (2.)  By  a  preposition 
with  its  object,  (3.)  By  an  infinitive,  (4.)  By  an  adverb. 

Examples  of  the  Participle. — "  The  man,  having  written  the  letter,  mailed 
it."  "  The  man,  living  in  caae,  became  indolent."  "  The  man,  wishing  <o 
sleep,  retired  to  his  room."  "  The  man,  thoroughly  frightened,  fled  from 
the  house." 

Examples  of  the  Infinitive. — "A  desire  to  gain  honor."  "A  desire  to 
live  in  ease."  "A  resolution  to  cease  to  do  evil."  "A  resolution  to  cease 
immediately  from  evil  courses." 


166  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


NOTES. 


1.  A  Participle,  or  an  Infinitive,  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be 
used  as  a  subject;  as,  ^^ Learning  Latin  thoroughly  requires  much 
time."     ''To  learn  Latin  thoroughly  requires  much  time." 

2.  A  Participle,  when  used  as  a  subject,  may  be  modified  by  a 
noun,  or  an  adjective,  having  no  other  grammatical  dependence; 
as,  "  Being  a  hero  requires  courage,"  "  Being  heroic  requires 
courage." 

3.  An  Infinitive,  when  used  as  a  subject,  may  be  modified  by 
a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  a  participle,  having  no  other  grammatical 
dependence ;  as,  "  To  be  a  hero  requires  courage,"  "  To  be  heroic 
requires  courage,"  "To  live  constantly  fearing  death  requires 
patience." 

4.  The  Participle  or  Infinitive,  in  these  cases,  must  belong  to 
an  intransitive  verb,  or  to  the  passive  voice.     See  Syntax,  p.  126. 


>JAio 


Model.  —  "  The  desire  of  the  aspiring  boy  to  receive  in  his 
youth  a  suitable  education  was  natural." 
In  this  sentence, 

1.  The  simple  subject  is  desire  ("desire  was  natural"). 

2.  The  adjuncts  or  modifiers  of  this  subject  are  the  following: 
{a)  The  article  the  ("  the  desire  "). 

(6)  The  preposition  and  its  object,  of  boy,  ("  the  desire  of 

boy.") 
(c)  The  infinitive  to  receive  ("  The  desire  of  boy  to  receive"). 

3.  The  adjuncts  are  themselves  modified  by  other  adjuncts,  as 
follows : 

(a)  The  adjunct  of  boy  is  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the 
adjective  aspiring  ("of  the  aspiring  boy"). 

(6)  The  adjunct  to  receive  is  modified  by  the  object  education 
and  the  preposition  and  its  object,  in  youth  ("to  re- 
ceive in  youth  education  "). 

(c)  The  adjunct  in  youth  is  modified  by  the  possessive  pro- 

noun his  ("in  his  youth"). 

[d)  The  adjunct  education  is  modified  by  the  article  a  and 

the  adjective  suitable  ("a  suitable  education"). 

4.  The  whole  complex  subject  is,  The  desire  of  the  aspiring  boy 
to  receive  in  his  youth  a  suitable  education. 


ANALYSIS.  167 

Exercises.  —Give,  (1.)  The  simple  subject,  (2.)  Its  adjuncts  or 
modifiers,  (3.)  The  adjuncts  of  the  adjuncts,  (4.)  The  whole  com- 
plex subject,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  earnest  conviction  of  Christopher  Columbus  that  he 
would  reach  land  by  sailing  westward  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
new  world. 

2.  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  gentiles,  rejoicing  steadfastly  in  the 
hope  set  before  him,  suffered  martyrdom. 

3.  The  birds  with  their  bright"  feathers,  sailing  through  the  air, 
gladden  the  heart  of  man. 

4.  Careless  of  fame,  the  youth  pursues  the  even  tenor  of  his  way. 

5.  In  the  centre  was  a  vast  hollow  square  filled  with  innumer- 
able flowering  plants. 

Ifote.  —  The  Subject  is  often  transposed  and  placed  after  the  predicate, 
as  in  this  last  example. 

III.   COMPOUND  SUBJECTS. 

A  Compound  Subject  is  one  which  consists  of  two 
or  more  subjects,  whether  simple  or  complex,  connected 
by  one  or  more  conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1.  Sometimes  the  separate  subjects  which  form  the  Compound 
subject  may  make  separate  sentences,  by  repeating  the  predicate. 

Example.  —  "  Lakes  and  oceans  are  large  bodies  of  water."  This  may 
be  separated  into  two  sentences,  thus :  "  Lakes  are  large  bodies  of  water," 
"  Oceans  are  large  bodies  of  water." 

2.  Sometimes  the  several  subjects  cannot  be  thus  separated, 
because  the  predicate  does  not  admit  of  it. 

Example. — "The  Raritan  river,  the  Delaware  river,  and  the  connectinj; 
canal,  form  a  continuous  line  of  inland  navigation  between  New  York  and 
Philadelphia."  Here  the  predicate  is  true  of  the  compound  subject  as  a 
whole,  but  not  of  any  one  of  the  single  subjects  taken  by  itself. 

3.  This  separation  into  distinct  sentences  may  be  made  when- 
ever the  predicate  is  true  of  each  subject  taken  by  itself,  but 
cannot  be  made  when  the  predicate  is  true  of  the  different  sub- 
jects only  when  taken  together  as  a  whole. 


168  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  Each  of  the  separate  subjects  which  form  a  compound  sub- 
ject may  be  complex,  and  as  such  may  be  modified  by  adjuncts 
in  all  the  different  ways  already  described  under  the  head  of 
Complex  Subjects.     It  is  not  necessary  to  give  separate  examples. 

11.   THE  PREDICATE. 

Distinction  of  Grammatical  Predicate  and  Logi- 
cal Predicate. 

The  Grammatical  Predicate  is  simply  the  finite  verb 
to  which  the  noun  or  pronoun  forming  the  grammatical 
subject  is  nominative. 

Examples.  —  "  The  man  lives."  "  The  man  has  at  length  reached  home 
safely."  "  Caesar  was  the  conqueror  of  Gaul."  The  grammatical  predicates 
here  are  the  verbs  lives,  has  reached,  and  was. 

The  Logical  Predicate  is  not  simply  the  verb  to 
which  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  nominative,  but  includes 
also  all  the  attendant  words  which  modify  in  any  way  the 
meaning  of  the  verb. 

In  the  second  example  above,  the  Logical  predicate  is,  has  at  length 
reached  home  safely  ;  in  the  third  example  it  is,  was  the  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

The  Logical  Predicate,  then,  includes  all  the  words 
which,  taken  together,  tell  what  is  said  or  affirmed  of  the 
subject. 

The  Logical  Predicate  is  the  one  treated  of  in  Analysis. 

The  Predicate  is  of  three  kinds,  Simple,  Complex, 
and  Compound. 

I.    SIMPLE   PREDICATES. 

A  Simple  Predicate  is  a  single  finite  verb,  having 
some  noun  or  pronoun  for  its  nominative. 

The  Logical  Predicate  and  the  Grammatical  Predicate  here  are 
the  same. 

Examples.— "The  sun  has  risen."  ''The  illustrious  general,  who  had 
been  victorious  in  a  hundred  fights,  icas  defeated." 


ANALYSIS.  169 

II.    COMPLEX   PREDICATES. 

A  Complex  Predicate  is  one  in  which  the  predicate 
verb  is  accompanied  by  some  other  word  or  words  which 
in  some  way  limit  or  modify  its  meaning. 

Example. — "  The  life  of  such  a  man  toill  at  length  come  to  an  end  in  the 
midat  of  shame  and  sorrow."  Here  the  predicate  is  the  verb  "will  come" 
with  all  the  other  accompanying  words  in  italics.  These  accompanying 
words  modify  or  limit  the  verb  *'  will  come."  They  all,  taken  together, 
form  the  affirmation  which  is  made  in  regard  to  "  the  life  of  such  a  man." 

Adjuncts  to  the  Predicate. 

Adjuncts  are  the  accompanying  words  which  make  a 
Predicate  complex. 

The  Adjuncts  of  the  Predicate  are  of  three  kinds, 
namely,  Single  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

The  following  are  examples  of  each  of  these  three  kinds  of 
adjuncts : 

1.  Single  Words.  —  "The  old  man  went  back  slowly."  Here  "back" 
and  "slowly"  are  single  words  modifying  or  qualifying  the  predicate 
"went." 

2.  Phrases.  —  "  The  old  man  went  to  his  home  in  great  wrath."  Here 
the  phrases,  "  to  his  home,"  and  "  in  great  wrath,"  modify  the  predicate 
**  went." 

3.  Clauses. — "  The  man  lived  in  the  house  tchich  was  upon  the  hill-side." 
Here  the  clause,  "  which  was  upon  the  hill-side,"  is  one  of  the  modifiers  of 
the  predicate  "  lived." 

Ways  in  ^Arhieh  Adjuncts  modify  the  Predicate. 
The  Predicate  is  modified  by  Adjuncts,  as  follows: 

1.  By  an  adjective  belonging  to  the  subject- nominative;  as, 
"Good  men  are  few."  The  adjective  in  this  case  is  called  the 
adjective-predicate,  and  is  parsed  as  belonging  to  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  is  nominative  to  the  verb. 

2.  By  a  participle  belonging  to  the  subject-nominative ;  as, 
"  He  sat  watching." 

3.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  after  the  verb ;  as, 

15 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

"The  men  have  become  drunkards,'^  "It  is  I"    The  noun  or 
pronoun  in  this  case  is  called  the  nominative-predicate. 

Note  1. — The  nominative-predicate  after  a  verb  is  sometimes  introduced 
by  the  conjunction  as.     "  He  was  regarded  as  a  scholar," 

Note  2. — A  noun  or  pronoun  can  be  nominative-predicate  only  after  in- 
transitive verbs  and  after  the  passive  voice  of  transitive  verbs ;  as,  "  He 
was  called  a  villain." 

Note  3. — A  noun -predicate  after  an  infinitive  may  be  in  the  objective, 
if  the  word  which  it  represents  is  in  the  objective;  as,  "We  allowed  them 

to  become  drunkai'ds." 

t 

4.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  object  of  the  verb ;  as, 
"  We  saw  him,"  "  We  heard  noises." 

IJ"ote. — An  objective-predicate  can  occur  only  after  a  transitive  verb  in 
the  active  voice,  or  after  an  intransitive  verb  having  the  same  meaning  as 
the  object;  as,  "He  runs  a  race." 

5.  By  a  preposition  with  its  object ;  as,  "  The  man  has  gone 
to  town." 

6.  By  a  verb  in  the  infinitive ;  as,  "  He  continued  to  move." 

7.  By  an  adverb ;  as,  "  He  writes  rapidly." 

8.  By  a  clause ;  as,  "  He  asked  that  the  time  might  be  extended." 


:>>9ic 


Model. — "  No  man  can  truly  say  that  he  is  without  sin." 
In  this  sentence, 

1.  The  simple  predicate  is  can  say. 

2.  Its  adjuncts  or  modifiers  are  the  adverb  truly,  and  the  clause, 
thai  he  is  without  sin. 

3.  The  whole  complex  predicate  is,  can  truly  say  that  he  is  with- 
out sin. 

Exercises. —  Give,  (1.)  The  simple  predicate,  (2.)  The  adjuncts 
or  modifiers  of  the  simple  predicate,  (3.)  The  whole  complex 
predicate,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Wealth  begets  desire  for  wealth. 

2.  Men  of  learning  have  often  been  unwise. 

3.  The  lark  rises  toward  heaven  singing. 


ANALYSIS.  171 

4.  Fishes  glide  rapidly  through  water  by  swimming. 

5.  Christopher  Columbus  believed  after  study  that  the  earth 
was  round. 

Ways  in  which  the  Adjuncts  of  the  Predicate  are 
modified  by  other  Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts  of  the  predicate  may  themselves  be  modified  by  other 
words. 

The  several  parts  of  speech,  when  used  as  adjuncts  to  the  pre- 
dicate, are  modified  in  the  same  manner  as  the  same  words  are 
when  used  as  adjuncts  to  the  subject.  It  is  not  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  enumerate  them  in  detail. 


3>»iC 


Model.  —  "  The  wrestler  found  at  length  a  young  man  willing 
to  compete  with  him." 
In  this  sentence, 

1.  The  simple  predicate  is  the  verh  found  ("wrestler  found"). 

2.  The  adjuncts  or  modifiers  of  this  predicate  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

(a)  The  noun  man,  object  of  the  verb  ("wrestler  found 

man"). 

[b)  The  preposition  and  its  object,  at  length  ("  The  wrestler 

found  at  length  man"). 

3.  The  adjuncts  are  themselves  modified  by  other  adjuncts,  as 
follows : 

[a)  The  adjunct  man  is  modified  by  the  article  a  and  the  ad- 
jectives young  and  willing  ("a  young  man  willing"). 

(6)  The  adjunct  willing  is  itself  modified  by  the  infinitive  to 
compete,  and  that  again  by  the  preposition  and  object 
with  him  ("willing  to  compete  with  him"). 

4.  The  whole  complex  predicate  is,  found  at  length  a  young 
man  willing  to  compete  with  him. 

Exercises.  —  Give,  (1.)  The  simple  predicate,  (2.)  Its  adjuncts 
or  modifiers,  (3.)  The  adjuncts  of  the  adjuncts,  (4.)  The  whole 
complex  predicate,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences : 


172  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  silver  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  far  exceed  in  value 
the  whole  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  mines. 

2.  The  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun  is,  in  round  numbers, 
one  hundred  millions  of  miles. 

3.  The  ordinary  processes  of  direct  instruction  are  of  immense 
importance,  presupposing  in  the  mind  to  which  they  are  applied 
an  active  co-operation. 

4.  The  faith  of  the  first  Christians  expressed  itself  in  vehement 
reaction  against  the  prevailing  tendencies  of  an  exceedingly 
corrupt  civilization. 

5.  The  genius  for  disorder,  which  shows  itself  in  some  young 
persons,  is  not  a  hopeful  sign  for  their  future  comfort  in  life. 

Review  Exercises.  —  Give,  (1.)  The  simple  subject,  (2.)  Its 
adjuncts,  (3.)  The  adjuncts  of  the  adjuncts,  (4.)  The  whole  com- 
plex subject,  in  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences. 

III.     COMPOUND  PREDICATES. 

A  Compound  Predicate  is  one  which  consists  of  two 
or  more  predicates,  whether  simple  or  complex,  united 
by  one  or  more  conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  several  predicates  which  form  the  compound  predicate," 
may  generally  make  separate  sentences,  by  repeating  the  subject. 

Examples. — "  The  Atlantic  ocean  is  the  large  body  of  water  lying  between 
Europe  and  America,  and  is  traversed  continually  by  steamers  and  sailing 
Vessels."  This  may  be  separated  into  two  distinct  sentences,  thus :  *'  The 
Atlantic  ocean  is  the  large  body  of  water  lying  between  Europe  and 
America."  "  The  Atlantic  ocean  is  traversed  continually  by  steamers  and 
sailing  vessels." 

"  Drunkenness  enslaves  and  debases  a  man."  This  may  be  separated 
into  the  two  sentences,  "  Drunkenness  enslaves  a  man,"  "  Drunkenness  de- 
bases a  man." 

2.  Each  of  the  separate  predicates  which  form  a  compound 
predicate  may  be  complex,  and  as  such  may  be  modified  by  ad- 
juncts, in  all  the  different  ways  described  under  the  head  of  Com- 
plex Predicates.     It  is  not  necessary  to  give  separate  examples. 


ANALYSIS.  173 

II.  KINDS   OF  SENTENCES. 

Two  Ways  of  Classifying  Sentences. 

Sentences  are  divided  into  classes  or  kinds,  first  in 
reference  to  their  use,  secondly  in  reference  to  their 
structure. 

I.  Sentences,  as  to  their  use,  are  divided  into  three 
kinds,  namely,  Declarative,  Interrogative,  and  Impera- 
tive. 

A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  which  is  used  simply  to 
declare  or  deny. 

A  Declarative  sentence  must  always  contain  a  verb  in  the  Indicatire  or 
the  Potential  mood;  as,  "He  has  not  failed,"  "A  life  spent  in  doing  good 
could  not  be  a  failure." 

Note. — In  the  preceding  part  of  this  chapter,  explaining  the  Part*  of  a 
Sentence,  all  the  examples  given  have  been  Declarative  Sentences.  For 
the  purposes  of  illustration,  they  are  more  convenient  than  examples  of 
the  other  kinds  of  sentences. 

An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  which  is  used  to  ask  a 
question. 

•  An  Interrogative  sentence  must  always  contain  a  verb  in  the  Indicativo 
or  the  Potential  mood;  as,  "  Has  he  failed  ?  "  "  Could  a  life  spent  ia  doing 
good  bo  a  failure  ?  " 

An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  which  is  used  to  command, 
exhort,  entreat,  or  permit. 

An  Imperative  sentence  must  always  contain  a  verb  in  the  Imperatfvo 
mood;  as,  "Write  the  copy  according  to  your  directions,"  "  Father,  fb-rgive 
us,"  "  Go,  if  you  desire  it." 

II.  Sentences,  as  to  their  structure,  are  divided  into 
three  kinds.  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 

This  second  division  of  sentences  requires  a  more  distinct  coik- 
sideration. 
15* 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

L  SIMPLE   SENTENCES. 

A  Simple  Sentence  is  one  which  contains  but  one 
subject  and  one  predicate. 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  may  have  any  kind  and  degree 
of  complexity,  except  that  arising  from  the  introduction  of  a 
clause,  and  yet  the  sentence  be  simple. 

"  The  Delaware,  the  Raritan,  and  the  connecting  canal  form  a  continuous 
line  of  navigation."  This  is  a  simple  sentence,  because,  although  three 
things  are  named,  they  constitute  but  one  inseparable  subject.  The  propo- 
sition would  not  be  true,  if  made  of  any  one  of  them  separately. 

"Lakes  and  oceans  are  large  bodies  of  water."  This  is  not  simple,  be- 
cause it  may  be  resolved  into  the  two  sentences,  "  Lakes  are  large  bodies 
of  water,"  "Oceans  are  large  bodies  of  water." 

"A  canoe  which  is  made  of  bark  is  easily  broken."  This  is  not  simple, 
because  the  subject  is  modified  by  a  clause.  The  sentence  thus  has  two 
predicates,  is  made,  and  ia  hrohen. 

"  The  man  learned  that  the  canoe  was  made  of  bark."  This  is  not 
simple,  because  the  predicate  is  modified  by  a  clause.  The  sentence  thus 
has  two  predicates,  learned,  and  was  made. 

"  The  foolish  young  man,  in  the  flush  of  a  momentary  excitement,  rush- 
ing into  the  surging  stream,  at  the  time  of  high  water,  in  a  frail  canoe 
made  of  bark,  was  rapidly  whirled  by  the  impetuosity  of  the  descending 
current  into  the  yawning  abyss  below."  Here,  both  the  subject  and  the 
predicate  are  very  complex,  yet  the  sentence  is  simple.  It  has  but  oner 
subject  and  one  predicate. 


II.  COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

A  Complex  Sentence  is  one  which  contains  a  simple 
sentence,  with  one  or  more  clauses  modifying  either  its 
subject  or  its  predicate. 

"A  life  which  is  spent  in  doing  good  cannot  be  a  failure."  This  is  a 
complex  sentence,  because  the  subject  is  modified  by  the  clause,  tohich  is 
spent  in  doing  good.     The  sentence  thus  has  two  predicates. 

"  He  was  at  the  station  when  the  train  arrived."  This  is  complex,  be- 
cause the  predicate  is  modified  by  the  clause,  when  the  train  arrived.  The 
sentence  thus  has  two  predicates. 


ANALYSIS.  175 

III.  COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 
A  Compound  Sentence  is  one  which  contains  two  or 
more  sentences,  whether  simple  or  complex,  connected  by 
one  or  more  conjunctions. 

"  Ho  left  home  in  good  season,  and  was  at  the  station  when  the  train 
arrived."  This  is  a  compound  sentence,  containing  the  simple  sentence, 
He  left  home  in  good  season,  and  the  complex  sentence,  [He]  was  at  the  station 
when  the  train  arrived,  the  two  being  connected  by  the  conjunction  and. 

The  seutences  which  compose  a  Compound  Sentence  are  called 
its  Members. 


3i*:c 


III.   EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS. 

The  terms  Phrase,  Clause,  and  Member  frequently 
occur  in  speaking  of  Sentences.  These  terms  have  been 
already  defined,  but  some  additional  illustration  seems 
desirable. 

I.   PHRASES. 

A  Phrase  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  mean- 
ing, but  not  containing  a  predicate- verb,  and  not  making 
by  themselves  complete  sense. 

The  principal  Phrases  are  the  following : 

1.  The  Appositional  Phrase;  as,  "June,  the  month  of  roses,  has  come  at 
length." 

2.  The  Prepositional  Phrase ;  as,  "  The  cause  of  all  this  misery  was  bad 
temper." 

3.  The  Adjective  Phrase;  as,  "Youth,  full  of  expectation,  is  ever  san- 
guine." 

4.  The  Participial  Phrase;  as,  "Living  on  vegetables,  he  was  not  strong." 

5.  The  Infinitive  Phrase;  as,  "He  determined  to  live  on  vegetables  only." 

6.  The  Subject  Phrase.  This  is  where  a  Participial  Phrase  or  an  Infinitive 
Phrase  is  used  as  the  subject  to  the  verb ;  as,  "  Living  on  vegetables  only  is 
not  conducive  to  strength,"  "'fo  live  on  vegetables  only  is  not  conducive  to 
strength." 


176  ENGLISH    GIIAMMAR. 

7.  The  Absolute  Phrase ;  as,  "  The  king  being  dead,  his  oldest  son  suc- 
ceeds to  the  throne." 

8.  The  Independent  Phrase.  This  includes  all  mere  exclamations,  and 
all  words  addressed  to  persons  or  things,  and  not  grammatically  dependent 
upon  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  Out  upon  the  villain  !  he  deserves 
the  halter,"  ^'Detestable  villain,  j'ou  deserve  the  halter."  These  exclama- 
tions and  addresses  often  consist  of  a  single  word;  as  "  Villain,  leave  the 
house." 

II.  CLAUSES. 

A  Clause  is  a  number  of  words,  connected  in  mean- 
ing, and  containing  a  verb  with  its  subject,  and  so  making 
by  themselves  complete  sense,  but  not  independent,  being 
used  to  modify  some  other  word. 

The  principal  Clauses  are  the  following : 

1.  The  Relative  Clause ;  as,  "  The  man  who  is  faithful  to  duty  is  to  be 
honored." 

2.  The  Appositional  Clause ;  as,  "  The  maxim.  Put  not  off  till  to-morrow 
what  can  be  done  to-day,  has  much  wisdom." 

3.  The  Subject  Clause;  as,  "  That  life  is  tmcertain  is  known  to  all." 

4.  The  Object  Clause ;  as,  "  They  knew  that  the  man  was  a  villain." 

5.  The  Adverbial  Clause ;  as,  "  He  remained  at  the  station  until  the  train 
left." 

6.  The  Conjunctional  Clause ;  as,  "  He  will  meet  you  at  the  station,  */ 
you  come  in  time." 

III.    MEMBERS. 

A  Member  is  a  sentence,  complete  and  independent 
in  itself,  and  not  used  to  modify  any  word  or  clause,  yet 
united  by  a  conjunction  with  some  other  sentence  to  form 
a  compound  sentence. 

The  difference  between  Members  and  Clauses  is  this :  Members 
are  parts  of  compound  sentences;  Clauses,  of  complex  sentences. 
A  Member  of  a  sentence  can  stand  alone  as  an  independent 
sentence;  a  Clause,  though  containing  a  subject  and  predicate,  is 
yet  always  dependent  upon  something  outside  of  itself. 


ANALYSIS.  177 

"The  sun,  when  it  had  risen,  scorched  the  grass."  "When  it  had  risen" 
cannot  stand  alone.     It  is  a  clause,  dependent  upon  "  sun." 

"  The  sun  had  risen,  and  the  grass  was  scorched."  Here  are  two  sen- 
tences, each  complete  and  independent  in  itself,  but  both  united  to  form 
a  Compound  sentence.  These  two  sentences,  taken  separately,  are  called 
the  Members  of  the  Compound  sentence. 


GENERAL  EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS. 

Model. —  "  The  esteem  of  wise  and  good  men  is  the  greatest  of 
all  temporal  encouragements  to  virtue ;  and  it  is  the  mark  of  an 
abandoned  spirit  to  have  no  regard  to  it." 

1.  This  is  a  declarative  sentence,  compound,  and  contains  two 
members  connected  by  the  conjunction  and. 

2.  The  first  member,  "  The  esteem  of  wise  and  good  men  is  the 
greatest  of  all  temporal  encouragements  to  virtue,"  is  a  simple 
sentence. 

3.  The  subject,  "  The  esteem  of  wise  and  good  men,"  is  com- 
plex.    Analyze  it  according  to  the  model  on  p.  166. 

4.  The  predicate,  "  is  the  greatest  of  all  encouragements  to 
virtue,"  is  complex.    Analyze  it  according  to  the  model  on  p.  171. 

5.  The  second  member,  "  it  is  the  mark  of  an  abandoned  spirit 
to  have  no  regard  to  it,"  is  a  simple  sentence. 

6.  Its  subject,  "  it,"  is  simple. 

7.  Its  predicate,  "  is  the  mark  of  an  abandoned  spirit  to  have 
no  regard  to  it,"  is  complex.  Analyze  it  according  to  model, 
p.  171. 

Model.  —  "  Are  the  stars,  that  gem  the  vault  of  the  heavens 
above  us,  mere  decorations  of  the  night,  or  suns  and  centres  of 
planetary  systems  ?  " 

1.  This  is  an  interrogative  sentence,  compound,  and  contains 
two  members  connected  by  the  conjunction  or. 

2.  The  first  member,  "  Are  the  stars,  that  gem  the  vault  of  the 
heavens  above  us,  mere  decorations  of  the  night,"  is  a  complex 
sentence,  containing  a  relative  clause. 

3.  The  subject,  "  the  stars,  that  gem  the  vault  of  the  heavens 
above  us,"  is  complex.    Analyze,  first,  the  subject  and  predicate 

M 


178  ENG1.ISH    GRAMMAK. 

of  the  clause,  and  secondly,  the  whole  complex  subject,  according 
to  the  models,  pp.  166  and  171. 

4.  The  predicate,  "  are  mere  decorations  of  the  night,"  is  com- 
plex.    Analyze  it  according  to  model,  p,  171. 

5.  The  second  member,  supplying  the  ellipsis,  "  [are  they] 
suns  and  centres  of  planetary  systems,"  is  a  simple  sentence. 
Analyze  its  subject  and  predicate  according  to  the  models  already 
given. 

Exercises. — Analyze  in  the  same  manner  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  The  wind  and  rain  are  over;  calm  is  the  noon  of  day;  the 
clouds  are  divided  in  heaven ;  and  over  the  green  hill  flies  the 
inconstant  sun. 

2.  The  look  that  is  fixed  on  immortality  wears  not  a  perpetual 
smile;  and  eyes,  through  which  shines  the  light  of  other  worlds, 
are  often  dimmed  with  tears. 

3.  Books  are  standing  counsellors  and  preachers,  always  at 
hand,  and  always  disinterested ;  having  this  advantage  over  oral 
instructors,  that  they  are  ready  to  repeat  their  lesson  as  often  as 
we  please. 

4.  Can  we  imagine  that  God's  highest  gifts  of  intelligence, 
imagination,  and  moral  power,  were  intended  to  provide  only  for 
animal  wants? 

5.  Do  the  voice  of  the  wise,  and  the  arm  of  the  brave,  and  the 
blood  of  the  patriot  go  for  nothing,  in  the  wild  conflict  that  is 
desolating  the  earth? 

6.  Wordsworth,  in  his  poetry,  works  out  wisdom  as  it  comes 
from  the  common  heart  of  man,  and  appeals  to  that  heart  in 
turn ;  causing  us  to  recognize  the  truth,  that  there  is  something 
in  humanity  which  deserves  alike  our  love  and  reverence. 

7.  Give  me  a  larger  eye,  and  I  will  reveal  to  you  another  rank 
of  worlds  marshalled  behind  those  whose  shining  hosts  you  now 
behold. 

8.  Macpherson,  who  has  given  us  some  highly  original  images, 
spoils  half  his  work  by  forgetting  that  his  bard  was  a  Gaul. 

9.  The  Greeks  may  well  boast  of  having  produced  a  Euclid, 
whose  works  are  esteemed  even  by  the  profoundest  mathemati- 
cians of  modern  times. 

10.  Cherish  true  patriotism,  which  has  its  root  in  benevolence; 
but  be  not  blind  to  the  defects  of  your  country,  because  you  were 
bom  in  it. 


PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  discourse 
into  sections  by  means  of  points,  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing the  grammatical  connection  and  dependence,  and  of 
making  the  sense  more  obvious. 

Capitals  are  used  for  a  like  purpose,  and,  therefore, 
they  may  with  propriety  be  treated  of  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Points. 

NOTES. 

1.  For  a  fuller  illustration  of  this  subject,  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
author's  work  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric. 

2.  The  word  Punctuation  is  from  the  Latin  punctum,  a  point.  The  points 
now  used  in  writing  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Aristophanes,  a  gram- 
marian of  Alexandria,  about  two  and  a  half  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  introduced  some  of  the  marks  now  used  in  punctuation.  But  the  points 
did  not  come  into  common  use  until  the  time  of  Aldus  Manutius,  a  learned 
printer  of  Venice,  who  reduced  the  matter  to  a  system  about  the  year  1500, 
and,  by  the  extreme  beauty  and  accuracy  of  his  editions,  gave  it  general 
currency. 

3.  The  word  Capital  is  from  the  Latin  caput,  a  head.  The  letters  of  the 
word  or  words  forming  the  caput,  heading,  or  title  of  a  discourse,  are  called 
head-letters,  or  capitals. 

4.  The  capital  letters  were  those  first  invented,  and  were  in  use  many  cen- 
turies before  the  invention  of  the  small  letters.  The  oldest  manuscripts  now 
in  existence,  some  of  which  date  as  far  back  as  the  third  century,  are  writ- 
ten entirely  in  capitals,  and  are  likewise  almost  without  points,  and  without 
spacing  between  the  words.  The  small  letters  were  first  introduced  about 
the  seventh  century;  but,  for  some  time  after  the  introduction  of  the  small 
letters,  the  capitals  continued  to  be  used  much  more  than  they  are  now. 

The  principal  grammatical  points  are  five ;  namely, 

1.  The  Comma,  , 

2.  The  Semicolon,  ; 

3.  The  Colon,  : 

4.  The  Period, 

6.  The  Interrogation,  ? 

179 


((  yy 


180  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

These  points  have  various  degrees  of  disjunctive  force,  in  separating  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  from  each  other.  This  force  may  be  expressed  briefly, 
as  follows  :  The  Period,  except  when  used  for  an  abbreviation,  marks  the 
greatest  separation  of  all,  the  parts  between  which  it  is  placed  being  thereby 
rendered  grammatically  entirely  independent  of  each  other;  the  Colon 
marks  a  separation  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  Period;  the  Semicolon, 
less  than  that  of  the  Colon ;  and  the  Comma,  less  than  that  of  the  Semicolon. 
The  Interrogation,  though  usually  counted  as  equivalent  to  a  period,  may 
be  equivalent  to  a  comma,  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  according  to 
circumstances. 

Besides  the  five  points  already  named,  several  other 
characters  are  used  for  similar  purposes.  The  most  com- 
mon of  these  are  the  following  : 

The  Exclamation,      ! 

The  Dash,  — 

The  Parenthesis,      (  ) 

The  Bracket,  [  ] 

The  Quotation, 

The  Apostrophe, 


3i»^< 


L  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  marks  the  smallest  of  the  grammatical 
divisions  of  discourse  that  require  a  point. 

The  word  Comma  (Greek  KOfjifta,  from  Kdima,  to  cut)  denotes  something  cut 
off,  a  section.  It  was  used  originally  to  denote,  not  the  mark,  but  the  por- 
tion of  the  sentence  thus  set  off.  The  same  is  true  of  the  words  semicolon 
and  colon.  They  meant  originally  portions  of  discourse,  not,  as  now,  the 
marks  by  which  those  portions  are  set  off.  Period,  Interrogation,  Paren- 
thesis, and  some  other  like  words,  are  used  in  both  senses ;  they  mean  por- 
tions of  discourse,  and  also  the  marks  by  which  those  portions  are  set  off. 

RULE  I. 
Parenthetical    Expressions.  —  Phrases    and   single 
words,  used  parenthetically,  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 


PUNCTUATION.  181 

Phrases  and  words  are  parenthetical  when  they  are  not  essential  to  the 
meaning  and  structure  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand.  Such  words 
and  phrases  belong  rather  to  some  unexpressed  th(>ught  that  is  in  the  mind, 
than  to  the  thought  actually  expressed.  Thus,  "  It  is  mind,  after  all,  which 
does  the  work  of  the  world."  Here  the  phrase  "after  all"  does  not  belong 
to  the  verb  "  does."  The  author  does  not  mean  to  say  that  mind  does  the 
work  of  the  world,  after  doing  everything  else.  In  like  manner,  it  docs  not 
modify  any  other  part  of  the  expressed  sentence.  On  the  contrary,  it  be- 
longs to  some  unexpressed  thought,  as  though  we  were  to  say,  "  After  all 
that  can  be  claimed/or  other  agents,  we  may  still  claim  for  the  mind,  that  it 
does  the  work  of  the  world."  Sometimes  the  parenthetical  word  or  phrase 
refers  to  what  is  expressed  in  the  preceding  sentence.  Thus,  "  The  danger 
was  fully  explained  to  him.  His  passions,  however,  prevented  his  seeing  it." 
Parenthetical  expressions,  then,  are  such  as  are  not  necessary  to  the  structure 
and  meaning  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand,  if  taken  alone,  but  they 
are  a  part  of  the  machinery,  so  to  speak,  by  which  the  sentence  is  connected 
with  some  preceding  sentence,  or  with  some  unexpressed  sentence  or  thought 
existing  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  They  are,  in  fact,  of  a  conjunctional, 
rather  than  of  an  adverbial  character. 

Some  of  the  phrases  in  common  use,  which  require  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  following : 
in  short,  in  truth,  to  be  sure, 

in  fact,  as  it  were,  to  be  brief, 

in  fine,  as  it  happens,  after  all, 

in  reality,  no  doubt,  you  know, 

in  brief,  in  a  word,  of  course. 

Some  of  the  single  words  used  parenthetically,  and  often  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  following: 
therefore,  namely,  moreover, 

then,  consequently,  surely, 

however,  indeed,  accordingly, 

perhaps,  too,  finally. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Gentleness  is  in  truth  ^the  great  avenue  to  real  enjoyment. 

2.  The  locomotive  bellows  as  it  were  from  the  fury  of  passion. 

3.  He  knows  very  well^come  what  may  that  the  note  will  be 
paid. 

4.  He  had  no  doubt  great  aptitude  for  learning  languages. 

16  ' 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  He  went  home  accordingly  and  arranged  his  business  in  the 
manner  described. 

6.  There  are  in  truth  only  two  things  to  be  considered  namely 
his  honesty  and  his  ability. 

,7.  No  nation  in  short  is  free  from  danger. 

8.  When  however  the  hour  for  the  trial  came,  the  man  was  not 
to  be  found. 

9.  I  proceed  fourthly  to  prove  the  fact  from  your  own  admis- 
sions. 

10.  But  on  the  other  hand  do  not  suppose  that  there  is  no  use 
in  trying. 

11.  The  meeting  after  all  was  something  of  a  failure. 

12.  Besides  it  may  be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  you  in  your 
business. 

RULE   II. 

Intermediate  Expressions.  —  Clauses  and  expres- 
sions, not  parenthetical  in  character,  yet  so  placed  as  to 
come  between  some  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence, should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  commas. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  these  intermediate  expressions  from 
such  as  are  properly  restrictive  in  their  character.  An  expression  is  re- 
strictive, when  it  limits  the  meaning  of  some  particular  word  to  some  par- 
ticular sense.  Thus,  "The  man  who  plants  the  field  ought  to  reap  the 
harvest."  Here  it  is  not  "  the  man  "  merely,  but  "  the  man  who  plants  the 
field,"  that  is  the  subject  of  "ought."  A  separation  of  the  relative  and  its 
adjuncts  from  "  man,"  by  means  of  commas,  would  destroy  the  sense.  The 
clause,  therefore,  is  restrictive.  It  limits  the  meaning  to  that  particular  man. 
But  suppose  I  say,  "Joseph,  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time, 
saw  the  carriage  approach,  and,  in  an  ecstasy  of  delight,  hastened  to. meet 
it."  Here,  the  expression,  "  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time," 
is  properly  a  relative  clause  not  restrictive,  and  comes  under  Rule  IV. ;  and 
the  expression,  "  in  an  ecstasy  of  delight,"  is  properly  intermediate,  and 
comes  under  Rule  II.  The  former  breaks  the  continuity  between  the  subject 
and  the  predicate ;  the  latter,  between  the  two  predicates. 

*  Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Classical  studies  regarded  merely  as  a  means  of  culture  are 
deserving  of  general  attention. 


PUNCTUATION.  183 

2.  The  sun  with  all  its  train  of  attendant  planets  is  but  a  small 
and  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  universe. 

3.  We  have  endeavored  in  the  preceding  paragraph  to  show  the 
incorrectness  of  his  position. 

4.  The  speaker  proceeded  with  the  greatest  animation  to  depict 
the  horrors  of  the  scene. 

5.  Christianity  is  in  a  most  important  sense  the  religion  of  sorrow. 

6.  A  man  of  great  wealth  may  for  want  of  education  and  refine- 
ment of  manner  be  a  mere  cipher  in  society. 

7.  Charity  on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  it^  is  one  of  the 
highest  Christian  graces. 

8.  One  hour  a  day  steadily  given  to  a  particular  study  will 
bring  in  time  large  accumulations. 

RULE  III. 

Dependent  or  Conditional  Clauses.  —  A  dependent 
or  conditional  clause  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or  by  commas. 

NOTES. 

1.  Clauses  are  dependent,  when  one  of  them  is  subject  to  the  other  for 
the  completion  of  the  sense. 

2.  One  of  the  dependent  clauses  usually  begins  with  ?/,  unhfts,  until,  when, 
where,  or  other  word  expressive  of  condition,  purpose,  cause,  time,  place, 
and  the  likej  as,  "  If  you  would  succeed  in  business,  be  honest  and  indus- 
trious." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Note.  —  In  punctuating  these  examples  and  those  which  are  to  follow, 
insert  not  only  the  points  required  by  the  rule  under  consideration,  but  also 
those  required  by  the  preceding  rules.] 

1.  If  you  would  succeed  in  business  be  punctual  in  observing 
your  engagements. 

2.  Every  man  if  he  would  succeed  in  business  must  be  punctual 
in  observing  his  engagements. 

3.  The  days  in  December  you  know  are  at  their  shortest  and 
therefore  you  must  rise  by  the  dawn  if  you  would  have  much 
daylight. 

4.  The  index  at  the  end  of  the  book  will  enable  the  pupil  if  his 
memory  fail  him  to  discover  the  particular  rule  which  he  needs. 


184  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  reader  should  however  as  he  proceeds  from  sentence  to 
sentence  make  a  note  of  whatever  strikes  his  attention. 

6.  The  good  which  you  do  may  not  be  lost  though  it  may  be 
forgotten. 

7.  We  should  in  all  probability  be  ashamed  of  much  that  we 
boast  of  could  the  world  see  our  real  motive. 

RULE  IV. 

Relative  Clauses  not  Restrictive. ^Clauses  intro- 
duced by  a  relative  pronoun,  if  not  restrictive,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

NOTES. 

1.  See  Note  under  Rule  II.,  for  an  explanation  of  what  is  meant  by  restric- 
tive clauses. 

2.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  restric- 
tively,  if  it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  word  or  a  phrase  inclosed  in 
commas ;  as,  "  Those  friends,  who>  in  the  native  vigor  of  his  powers,  perceived 
the  dawn  of  Robertson's  future  eminence,  were  at  length  amply  rewarded." 

3.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  restrictively, 
if  several  words  intervene  between  it  and  its  grammatical  antecedent;  as, 
**  He  preaches  most  eloquently,  who  leads  the  most  pious  life." 

4.  Of  which  and  of  whom,  even  when  used  restrictively,  are  preceded  by 
a  comma;  as,  "No  thought  can  be  just,  of  which  good  sense  is  not  the 
groundwork." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  A  fierce  spirit  of  rivalry  which  is  at  all  times  a  dangerous 
passion  had  now  taken  full  possession  of  him. 

2.  The  spirit  which  actuated  him  was  a  thirst  for  vengeance. 

3.  The  man  of  letters  who  has  constantly  before  him  examples 
of  excellence  ought  himself  to  be  a  pattern  of  excellence. 

4.  Patriotism  consists  in  loving  the  country  in  which  we  are 
born. 

5.  Civil  war  is  an  awful  evil  of  which  however  history  fur- 
nishes many  examples.  ^ 

6.  No  man  can  be  thoroughly  proficient  in  navigation  who  has 
never  been  at  sea. 

7.  The  powers  which  now  move  the  world  are  the  printing- 
press  and  the  telegraph. 

8.  America  may  well  boast  of  her  Washington  whose  character 
and  fame  are  the  common  property  of  the  world. 


PUNCTUATION.  185 

RULE  V. 

A  Continued  Sentence  consisting  of  Co-ordinate 
Sentences.  —  In  a  continued  sentence,  consisting  of  co- 
ordinate sentences,  the  several  co-ordinate  sentences,  if 
simple  in  construction,  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas. 

If,  however,  these  co-ordinate  sentences  are  complex  and  involved,  espe- 
cially if  they  have  commas  within  themselves,  the  sentences  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  a  semicolon ;  as,  "  Crafty  men,  though  they  may  pretend  other- 
wise, contemn  studies ;  simple  men,  though  they  really  care  nothing  about 
the  matter,  yet  pretend  to  admire  them ;  wise  men  use  them." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies  simple  men  admire  them  and 
wise  men  use  them. 

2.  Speak  as  you  mean  do  as  you  profess  perform  what  you 
promise. 

3.  Caesar  was  dead  the  senators  were  dispersed  all  Kome  was  in 
confusion. 

RULE  VI. 

Grammatical  Expressions  in  the  same  Construc- 
tion forming  a  Series. — Grammatical  expressions  in 
the  same  construction  forming  a  series  should  be  separated 
from  each  other,  and  from  what  follows,  by  commas. 

NOTES. 

1.  A  grammatical  expression  is  a  collection  of  words,  having  some  gram- 
matical dependence  and  connection,  but  not  containing  in  themselves  a 
predicate. 

2.  If  the  expressions  are  brief,  and  there  are  but  two  of  them,  connected 
by  and,  or,  or  nor,  no  comma  between  them  is  needed ;  as,  "  Hard  study 
and  neglect  of  exercise  impair  the  health."  If,  however,  the  two  connected 
expressions  differ  much  in  form,  it  is  better  to  set  them  off  by  commas;  as, 
"  Hard  study,  and  the  entire  absence  of  attention  to  the  matter  of  diet, 
bring  on  disease." 


186  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Love  for  study  a  desire  to  do  right  and  carefulness  in  the 
choice  of  friends  are  important  traits  of  character. 

2.  To  cleanse  our  opinions  from  falsehood  our  hearts  from 
malignity  and  our  actions  from  vice  is  our  chief  concern. 

3.  Did  God  create  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner  air  a 
paler  sky  ? 

4.  Infinite  space  endless  numbers  and  eternal  duration  fill  the 
mind  with  great  ideas. 

RULE  VII. 

Words  in  the  same  Construction  forming  a  Series. 
—  Words  in  the  same  construction,  forming  a  series,  ad- 
mit of  the  following  three  cases : — 

1.  There  may  be  a  conjunction  between  each  two  of  the  words ; 
as,  "Industry  and  honesty  and  frugality  and  temperance  are 
among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  none  of  the  words  in 
the  series  are  to  be  separated  by  commas. 

2.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted,  except  between  the  last  two 
of  the  words  ;  as,  "  Industry,  honesty,  frugality,  and  temperance 
are  among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  all  the  words  are 
to  be  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

3.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted  between  the  last  two  words, 
as  well  as  between  the  others ;  as,  "  Industry,  honesty,  frugality, 
temperance,  are  among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  not 
only  all  the  words  of  the  series  are  to  be  separated  from  each  other 
by  commas,  but  a  comma  is  to  be  inserted  also  after  the  last  word, 
to  separate  it  from  what  follows. 

A  comma  is  not  in  any  case  to  be  inserted  after  the  last  word  of  a  series, 
if  what  follows  is  only  a  single  word;  as,  "The  good  will  form  hereafter 
stronger,  purer,  holier  ties." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  He  was  brave  and  pious  and  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

2.  He  was  brave  pious  and  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

3.  He  was  brave  pious  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

4.  He  was  a  brave  pious  pati'iotic  man. 


PUNCTUATION.  187 

6.  Aright  aleft  above  below  he  whirled  the  rapid  sword. 

6.  The  address  was  beautifully  elegantly  and  forcibly  written. 

7.  We  are  fearfully  wonderfully  made. 

8.  Virtue  religion  is  the  one  thing  needful. 

9.  Woe  woe  to  the  rider  that  tramples  them  down. 

10.  The  earth  the  air  the  water  teem  with  life. 

11.  Grand  ideas  and  sentiments  elevate  and  ennoble  the  mind. 

RULE  VIII. 

Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs. — Words  or  phrases  in 
pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Anarchy  and  confusion,  poverty  and  distress  desolation  and 
ruin  are  the  consequences  of  civil  war. 

2.  Truth  and  integrity  kindness  and  modesty  reverence  and 
devotion  were  all  remarked  in  him. 

3.  The  poor  and  the  rich  the  weak  and  the  strong  the  young 
and  the  old  ha/e  one  common  Father. 

4.  Eating  or  drinking  laboring  ^or  sleeping  let  us  do  all  in 
moderation. 

RULE  IX. 

Nouns  in  Apposition.  —  A  Noun  in  apposition  to 
some  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  and  having  an  adjunct 
consisting  of  several  words,  should,  with  all  its  connected 
words,  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas. 

NOTES. 

1.  Where  the  noun  put  in  apposition  stands  alone,  or  has  only  an  article 
before  it,  no  comma  is  required  between  said  noun  and  the  word  with  which 
it  is  in  apposition  ;  as,  "  Paul  the  apostle  was  a  man  of  energy." 

2.  A  noun  following  another  as  a  synonym,  or  as  giving  additional  illus- 
tration to  the  thought,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma 
before  and  after;  as  "The  word  Poet,  meaning  a  maker,  a  creator,  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek." 

3.  When  a  noun  is  predicated  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  it  is 
in  apposition,  no  comma  is  required  between  them ;  as, "  They  have  juat 
elected  him  Governor  of  the  State." 


188  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  After  several  words  containing  a  description  of  a  person  or  thing,  if 
the  name  of  the  person  or  thing  is  added,  it  should  be  set  oflF  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  commas  ;  as,  "  The  greatest  of  poets  among  the  ancients, 
Homer,  like  the  greatest  among  the  moderns,  Milton,  was  blind." 

5.  A  title,  whether  abbreviated  or  expressed  in  full,  when  annexed  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  must  be  set  off  by  commas  ;  as,  "  At  the  request  of  the  Rt, 
Rev.  W.  H.  Odenheimer,  D.  D.,  the  ceremony  was  postponed." 


Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  We  the  p.eople  of  the  United  States  do  hereby  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution. 

2.  Virgil  the  chief  poet  among  the  Komans  was  fond  of  rural 
life. 

3.  To  call  a  man  a  fool  is  not  to  make  him  one. 

4.  The  chief  work  of  Chaucer  the  Canterbury  Tales  suggested 
to  Longfellow  the  plan  of  his  work  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn. 

5.  John  Chapman  Doctor  of  Medicine.    John  Chapman  M.  D. 

RULE  X. 

The  Vocative  Case. — A  noun  in  the  vocative  case, 
or  case  independent,  as  it  is  called,  together  with  its 
adjunct  words,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Accept  my  dear  young  friends  this  expression  of  my  regard. 

2.  I  beg  sir,  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  favor. 

3.  I  rise  ^r.  President^ to  a  point  of  order. 

4.  Show  pity  Lord !     0  Lord  forgive  I 

6.  Remember  sir  you  cannot  have  it. 

RULE  XL 

The  Case  Absolute.  —  A  clause  containing  the  con- 
struction known  as  the  case  absolute  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas. 


PUNCTUATION.  189 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Then  came  Jesus  the  doors  being  shut  and  stood  in  the  midst. 

2.  A  state  of  ease  is  generally  speaking  more  attainable  than  a 
state  of  pleasure. 

3.  Shame  lost  all  virtue  is  lost. 

4.  His  father  being  dead  the  prince  ascended  the  throne. 

5.  I  being  in  the  way  the  Lord  led  me  to  the  house  of  my  mas- 
ter's brother. 

RULE  XII. 
Inverted  Clauses.  —  Inverted  clauses,  standing  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence,  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  infinitive  mood,  especially  when  used  to  express  object  or  design, 
is  often  inverted  in  this  way  j  as,  "  To  obtain  an  education,  he  was  willing 
to  make  sacrifices." 

2.  In  making  alphabetical  catalogues,  compound  names,  such  as  John 
Quincy  Adams,  are  usually  inverted,  that  is,  the  last  word  in  the  name,  being 
the  principal  one,  is  put  first,  and  is  then  separated  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  name  by  a  comma ;  as,  Adams,  John  Quincy. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Awkward  in  person  he  was  ill  adapted  to  gain  respect. 

2.  Of  all  our  senses  sight  is  the  most  important. 

3.  To  supply  the  deficiency  he  resorted  to  a  shameful  trick. 

4.  Living  in  filth  the  poor  cease  to  respect  one  another. 

5.  To  confess  the  truth  I  never  greatly  admired  him. 

RULE  XIIL 
Ellipsis  of  the  Verb.  —  In  continued  sentences,  hav- 
ing a  common  verb,  which  is  expressed  in  one  of  the 
members,  but  omitted  in  the  others,  the  ellipsis  of  the 
verb  is  marked  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man ;  conference  a  ready  man ;  writing 
an  exact  man. 

2.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist. 


190  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE. 

3.  Semiramis  built  Babylon;   Dido  Carthage;  and  Romulus. 
Eome. 

RULE  XIV. 

Short  Quotations.  —  A  short  quotation,  or  a  sentence 
resembling  a  quotation,  should  be  preceded  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Patrick  Henry  began  his  celebrated  speech  by  saying  "  It  is 
natural  to  man  to  indulge  the  illusions  of  hope." 

2.  A  good  rule  in  education  is  Learn  to  be  slow  in  forming  your 
opinions. 

3.  I  say  There  is  no  such  thing  as  human  perfection. 

4.  Some  one  justly  remarks  "  It  is  a  great  loss  to  lose  an  afflic- 
tion." 


XL   THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  some- 
what larger  and  more  complex  than  that  marked  by  a 
comma. 

RULE  I. 

Subdivided  Members  in  Compound  Sentences. — 
When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  and  these 
members,  or  either  of  them,  are  themselves  subdivided 
by  commas,  the  larger  divisions  of  the  sentence  should 
be  separated  by  a  semicolon. 

NOTES. 

1.  If  the  connection  between  these  members  is  close,  the  semicolon  is  not 
used.  The  word  "  when,"  introducing  the  first  member,  indicates  this  kind 
of  close  connection,  and  prevents  ordinarily  the  use  of  the  semicolon.  The 
Rule  itself  furnishes  an  example  of  the  semicolon  omitted  in  a  sentence 
beginning  with  "  when." 

2.  When  the  members  are  considerably  complex,  they  are  sometimes 
separated  by  a  semicolon,  even  though  not  subdivided  by  commas  ;  as,  "  So 
sad  and  dark  a  story  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  work  of  fiction ;  and  we 
are  little  disposed  to  envy  the  moralist  who  can  read  it  without  being 
Boftened." 


PTTNCTUATION.  191 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Sparre  was  sulky  and  perverse  because  he  was  a  citizen  of  a 

republic. 

2.  Sparre  the  Dutch  general  was  sulky  and  perverse  because 
according  to  Lord  Malion  he  was  a  citizen  of  a  republic. 

3.  Milton  was  like  Dante  a  statesman  and  a  lover  and  like 
Dante  he  had  been  unfortunate  in  ambition  and  in  love. 

4.  You  may  quit  the  field  of  business  though  not  the  field  of 
danger  and  though  you  cannot  be  safe  you  may  cease  to  be  ridic- 
ulous. 

RULE  IL 

Clauses  and  Expressions  having  a  Common  De- 
pendence.—  When  several  clauses  or  grammatical  ex- 
pressions of  similar  construction  follow  each  other  in  a 
series,  all  having  a  common  dependence  upon  some 
other  clause,  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
semicolon,  and  from  the  clause  on  which  they  all  depend, 
by  a  comma. 

Example. —  "Philosophers  assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in 
her  operations ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve; 
that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive ;  and  that  all  future 
generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Mr.  Croker  is  perpetually  stopping  us  in  our  progress 
through  the  most  delightful  narrative  in  the  language  to  observe 
that  really  Dr.  Johnson  was  very  rude  that  he  talked  more  for 
victory  than  for  truth  that  his  taste  for  port  wine  with  capilliare 
in  it  was  very  odd  that  Boswell  was  impertinent  and  that  it  was 
foolish  in  Mrs.  Tlirale  to  marry  the  music-master. 

2.  To  give  an  early  preference  to  honor  above  gain  when  they 
stand  in  competition. to  despise  every  advantage  which  cannot  be 
attained  without  dishonest  acts  to  brook  no  meanness  and  to 
stoop  to  no  dissimulations  are  the  indications  of  a  great  mind. 


192  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

RULE  III. 
Sentences  Connected  in  Meaning,  but  without 
Grammatical  Dependence. — Sentences  following  each 
other,  without  grammatical  dependence,  but  connected 
in  meaning,  are  usually  separated  from  each  other  by 
semicolons. 

Example.—"  She  presses  her  child  to  her  heart;  she  drowns  it 
in  her  tears ;  her  fancy  catches  more  than  an  angel's  tongue  can 
describe." 


In  all  the  cases  which  come  under  this  Rule,  two  features  are  essential. 
First,  each  of  the  several  members  forming  the  continued  sentence  should  be 
complete  in  itself,  so  that  it  might  grammatically  stand  alone,  with  a  period 
following.  Secondly,  these  several  members  should  have  some  underlying 
thread  of  connection  in  the  thought.  Authors  differ  in  regard  to  the  punc- 
tuation, in  these  cases.  Some  insist  on  separating  the  members  by  a  period. 
By  such  a  course,  however,  we  lose  one  important  means  of  marking  nice 
changes  of  thought.  Others  use  the  colon,  instead  of  the  semicolon,  for  these 
purposes.  This  was  the  case  formerly  much  more  than  now.  The  best 
usage  at  present  is,  to  employ  a  period,  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma, 
according  to  the  degree  of  complexity  or  simplicity  of  the  several  sentences, 
and  the  degree  of  closeness  or  looseness  of  connection  in  the  thought.  If 
the  connection  is  close,  and  the  successive  members  are  short  and  simple, 
the  comma  is  used;  if  the  members  are  somewhat  longer,  and  especially  if 
any  of  them  are  at  all  complex,  the  semicolon  is  used ;  if,  in  addition  to 
this,  the  connection  in  the  thought  is  but  faint,  the  colon  is  used ;  and  when 
the  connection  almost  disappears,  the  period  is  used. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Stones  grow  vegetables  grow  and  live  animals  grow  live  and 
feel. 

2.  The  summer  is  over  and  gone  the  winter  is  here  with  its 
frosts  and  snow  the  wind  howls  in  the  chimney  at  night  the  beast 
in  the  forest  forsakes  its  lair  the  birds  of  the  air  seek  the  habita- 
tion of  men. 

8.  The  temples  are  profaned  the  soldier's  oath  resounds  in  the 
house  of  God  the  marble  pavement  is  trampled  by  iron  hoofe 
horses  neigh  beside  the  altar. 


PUNCTUATION.  193 

RULE  IV. 

The  Clause  Additional.  —  When  a  sentence  com- 
plete in  itself  is  followed  by  a  clause  which  is  added  by 
way  of  inference,  explanation,  or  enumeration,  the  addi- 
tional clause,  if  formally  introduced  by  some  connecting 
word,  is  separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  sentence 
by  a  semicolon ;  but,  if  merely  appended  without  any 
such  connecting  word,  by  a  colon. 

Examples. — Apply  yourself  to  study ;  for  it  will  redound  to  your 
honor.    Apply  yourself  to  study :  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 

Some  of  the  connecting  words  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose  are 
namely,  for,  but,  yet,  to  wit,  etc. 

The  word  as,  when  used  to  connect  an  example  with  a  rule,  should  be 
preceded  by  a  semicolon  and  followed  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Greece  has  given  us  three  great  historians  namely  Herodotus 
Xenophon  and  Thucydides. 

2.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages 
viz.  the  golden  age  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age  and  the  iron  age. 

3.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages 
the  golden  age  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age  and  the  iron  age. 

4.  Cicero  in  his  treatise  on  morals  enumerates  four  cardinal 
virtues  to  wit  Fortitude  Temperance  Justice  and  Prudence. 

RULE  V. 

A  General  Term  in  Apposition  to  the  Particulars 
under  it.  —  A  general  term  in  apposition  to  several 
others  which  are  particulars  under  it  is  separated  from 
the  particulars  by  a  semicolon,  and  the  particulars  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

If  the  enumeration  of  the  particulars  is  given  with  much  for- 
mality, so  as  to  make  the  several  expressions  complex,  containing 
commas  of  their  own,  then  these  particulars  must  be  separated 

17  N 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

from  the  general  term  by  a  colon,  and  from  each  other  by  semi- 
colons; as, — 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes;  Distributive,  Demon- 
strative, and  Indefinite. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  these  three  classes  :  first,  the  Dis- 
tributive, which  are  four  in  number;  secondly,  the  Demonstrative,  which 
are  four;  and  thirdly,  the  Indefinite,  which  are  nine. 


III.   THE  COLON. 

The  Colon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  more  nearly 
complete  than  a  semicolon. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ku)\ov  (colon),  a  limb,  or  member. 
The  two  principal  uses  of  the  colon  have  already  been  given  in  Rules  IV. 
and  v.,  preceding.     The  following  additional  rules  are  given. 

RULE  I. 

Greater  Divisions  of  Complex  Sentences. — When 
the  minor  divisions  of  a  complex  sentence  contain  a  semi- 
colon, the  greater  divisions  should  be  separated  by  a 
colon ;  thus,  — 

As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  but  did  not  per- 
ceive it  moving  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  grass  has  grown,  though  nobody 
ever  saw  it  grow  :  so  the  advances  we  make  in  knowledge,  as  they  consist 
of  such  insensible  steps,  are  only  perceivable  by  the  distance. 

RULE  II. 

Before  a  Quotation.  —  A  colon  is  used  before  a  direct 
quotation;  thus, — 

Speaking  of  party,  Pope  makes  this  remark :  "  There  never  was  any 
party,  faction,  sect,  or  cabal  whatsoever,  in  which  the  most  ignorant  were 
not  the  most  violent." 

If  the  quotation  is  of  considerable  length,  consisting  of  several 


PUNCTUATION.  195 

sentenceB,  or  begins  a  new  paragraph,  it  should  be  preceded  by 
both  a  colon  and  a  dash.    Example :  — 

At  tho  close  of  the  meeting,  the  president  rose  and  said  :  — 

"  Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  it  is  with  extreme  reluctance  that  I  address  you 

on  this  occasion,"  etc. 

If  the  quotation  is  merely  some  short  saying,  a  comma  is  sufficient;  as, 

Dr.  Thomas  Brown  says,  "  The  benevolent  spirit  is  as  universal  as  the 

miseries  which  are  capable  of  being  relieved." 

RULE  III. 

Yes  and  No. — The  words  yes  and  no,  when  in  answer 
to  a  question,  should  be  followed  by  a  colon,  provided 
the  words  which  follow  the  yes  and  no  are  a  continuation 
of  the  answer ;  as,  — 

"  Can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts  ?  Yes :  they  can  do  it ;  they 
have  often  done  it." 

Yes  and  no  are  often  followed  by  some  noun  in  the  vocative 
case,  or  case  independent ;  as, "  Yes,  sir,"  "  Yes,  my  lords,"  etc.  In 
such  cases,  the  colon  should  come  after  the  vocative;  as,  "Yes, 
sir:  they  can  do  it."  "Yes,  my  lords:  I  am  amazed  at  his  lord- 
ship's speech." 

Examples    for    Practice    on    the    Rules    for    the 
Comma,  tke  Semicolon,  and  the  Colon. 

[Tell  what  Point  is  due  at  each  place  where  this  mark  o  occurs,  and  give 
the  Rule  for  the  same.] 

1.  Satire  always  tends  to  dwarf  o  and  it  cannot  fail  to  carica- 
ture o  but  poetry  does  nothing  o  if  it  does  not  tend  to  enlarge 
and  exalt  o  and  if  it  does  not  seek  rather  to  beautify  than  deform. 

2.  This  is  an  iambic  line  o  in  which  the  first  foot  is  formed  of 
a  word  and  a  part  of  a  word  o  the  second  and  third  o  of  parts 
taken  from  the  body  or  interior  of  a  word  o  the  fourth  o  of  a 
part  and  a  whole  o  the  fifth  o  of  two  complete  words. 

3.  Melissa  o  like  the  bee  o  gathers  honey  from  every  weed  o 
while  Arachne  o  like  the  spider  o  sucks  poison  from  the  fairest 
flowers. 


196  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  Are  these  to  be  conquered  by  all  Europe  united  ?  No  o  sir 
o  no  united  nation  can  be  o  that  has  the  spirit  to  resolve  not  to 
be  conquered. 

6.  Be  our  plain  answer  this  o  The  throne  we  honor  is  the 
people's  choice  o  the  laws  we  reverence  are  our  brave  fathers' 
legacy  o  the  faith  we  follow  teaches  us  to  live  in  bonds  of  charity 
with  all  mankind  o  and  die  with  hope  of  bliss  beyond  the  grave. 

6.  The  discourse  consisted  of  two  parts  o  in  the  first  was 
shown  the  necessity  of  exercise  o  iu  the  second  o  the  advantages 
that  would  result  from  it. 


IV.   THE  PERIOD. 
The  Period  marks  the  completion  of  the  sentence. 

The  word  Period  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ntpio^oi  (period),  a  circuit, 
and  means  primarily  anything  rounded  or  brought  to  completion.  It  was 
the  first  point  introduced. 

RULE  I. 

Complete  Sentences.  —  Sentences  which  are  com- 
plete in  sense,  and  not  connected  in  construction  with 
what  follows,  and  not  exclamatory  or  interrogative  in 
their  character,  should  be  followed  by  a  period. 

RULE  II. 

After  Abbreviations.  —  A  period  is  used  after  all 
abbreviated  words. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  most  common  method  of  abbreviation  is  to  use  the  first  letter  of  a 
word  for  the  whole  word,  as  B.  Franklin  for  Benjamin  Franklin.  Some- 
times, in  abbreviating  the  word,  the  first  letter  is  doubled ;  as,  p,  for  page, 
pp.  for  pages,  M.  for  Monsieur,  MM.  for  Messieurs.  In  such  cases,  a  period 
is  not  inserted  between  the  two  letters  which  represent  the  plural  of  one 
word.  This  explains  why  there  is  no  period  between  the  two  L's  in  the 
title  LL.D.  (Legum  Doctor),  the  LL.  standing  for  one  word  in  the  plural, 
and  the  D.  for  the  other  word  in  the  singular.     Sometimes  a  word  is  abbre- 


PUNCTUATION.       '  197 

viated  by  taking  the  first  two  or  three  letters,  as  Eng.  for  England;  somo- 
times  by  taking  the  first  letter  and  the  last,  as  Wm.  for  William,  Ca.  for 
California ,;  sometimes  by  taking  the  first  letter  and  some  leading  letter  in 
the  middle  of  the  word,  as  Mo.  for  Missouri,  MS.  for  manuscript.  In  these 
cases,  the  period  is  to  be  used  only  at  the  end  of  the  combined  letters.  In 
the  case  last  cited,  the  last  letter  of  the  combination  is  doubled  when  the 
word  is  plural;  as,  MS.  manuscript,  MSS.  manuscripts. 

2.  When  an  abbreviated  word  comes  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  use  two  periods.  One  point  is  suflBcient  to  mark  both  the  abbre- 
viation and  the  end  of  the  sentence.  But  if  the  construction  requires  some 
other  point,  as  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  interrogation,  etc.,  both  points 
must  be  inserted,  one  to  mark  the  grammatical  construction,  the  other  to 
mark  the  abbreviation  ;  as,  '*  He  reported  the  death  of  John  Chapman,  M.D." 
"John  Chapman,  M.D.,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  was  carried  ofif  by 
disease." 

3.  When  two  or  more  abbreviated  titles  follow  each  other,  they  must  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas,  just  as  they  would  be,  if  written  out 
in  full.  Thus  :  "  Thomas  Sumner,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws, 
Bishop  of  London,"  abbreviated,  becomes,  **  Thomas  Sumner,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
Bp.  of  London." 

4.  Proper  names  are  sometimes  permanently  shortened,  the  short  form 
being  meant,  not  as  an  ordinary  abbreviation,  but  as  the  real  and  true  name. 
This  was  the  case  with  the  celebrated  dramatist,  Ben  Jonson.  We  have 
analogous  and  more  familiar  instances  in  Ned  Buntline,  Bill  Smith,  Tom 
Jones,  etc.    In  such  cases,  no  period  should  be  inserted  to  mark  abbreviation. 

5.  In  like  manner,  various  other  abbreviations  which  are  in  very  familiar 
use  acquire  the  character  of  integral  words,  not  requiring  the  period  after 
them  to  denote  abbreviations.  They  become  nouns,  with  a  singular  and  a 
plural.  Thus,  in  England,  Cantab  (an  abridgment  of  Cantabrigiensis,  and 
meaning  an  alumnus  of  Cambridge  University),  has  become  a  noun,  the 
body  of  the  alumni  being  called  Cantabs,  and  any  one  of  them  a  Cantab. 
In  like  manner,  we  have  Jap  and  Japs  for  Japanese,  consol  and  consols  for 
consolidated  loan  or  consolidated  loans  of  the  British  Government,  three 
per  cents,  five  per  cents,  etc. 

6.  The  word  cent,  in  the  combination  per  cent,  had  become  thoroughly  es- 
tablished as  an  integral  word,  and  was  almost  universally  written  and  printed 
without  the  mark  of  abbreviation ;  but  of  late  years,  some  writers,  in  a 
spirit  of  hypercriticism,  have  insisted,  unwisely  I  think,  on  restoring  the 
period  after  cent  to  show  that  it  is  an  abbreviation  of  centum.  They  ought 
in  consistency  to  put  a  period  after  quart,  to  show  that  it  is  an  abbreviation 
of  quarta,  or  after  cab,  because  it  is  abbreviated  for  cabriolet. 

7.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  when  used  in  geom- 
etry and  other  sciences  to  represent  quantities,  are  not  abbreviations,  and 
should  not  be  so  marked  by  the  insertion  of  a  period. 

8.  When  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  represent  numerals,  it  is 

17* 


198  ENGLISPI    GRAMMAB. 

customary  to  insert  a  period  at  the  end  of  each  completed  numeral;  as, 
Psalms  iv.,  xxi.,  Ixxxvi.,  cxix.,  etc.  When  dates  are  thus  expressed,  the 
whole  number  is  separated  into  periods  of  thousands,  hundreds,  and  the  por- 
tion less  than  a  hundred;  as,  M.DCCCLXXI.  for  the  year  one  thousand, 
eight  hundred,  and  seventy-one,  or  1871. 

9.  The  Arabic  figures,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and  the  various  marks  used  by  printers, 
as  ^  for  section,  ^  for  paragraph,  etc.,  are  not  abbreviations,  but  stand  for 
whole  words,  and  therefore  do  not  require  the  period.  The  period  is  used, 
however,  before  decimals,  and  between  pounds  and  shillings;  as,  £2.  10s.  4d. 
sterling  was  worth  $13,719  at  the  rate  of  exchange  then  prevailing. 

10.  The  words  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  etc.,  are  not  strictly  abbreviations,  the 
figures  representing  a  part  of  the  word.  If  the  letters  were  written  in  place 
of  the  figures  which  represent  them,  it  would  be  seen  at  once  that  the  words 
are  complete,  quar-io,  octa-vo,  duodeci-mo,  etc.  Periods  therefore  are  not 
required  for  such  words.     The  same  rule  will  apply  to  1st,  2dly,  3dly,  etc. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Tell  what  Point  is  needed  at  each  place  where  this  mark  o  occurs,  and 
give  the  Rule  for  the  same.] 

1.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus  were  established  1807  o  B  o  C  o  o 
those  of  Lycurgus  o  884  o  B  o  C  o  o  of  Draco  o  623  o  B  o 
C  o  o  of  Solon  o  587  o  B  o  C  o  o  See  chap  o  vii  o  g  xiv  o 
H  7  o  p  o  617  o 

2.  The  reader  is  requested  to  refer  to  the  following  passages 
of  Scripture  o  Ex  o  xx  o  18  o  Deut  o  xx  o  19  o  2  o  Sam  o 
xix  o  2  o 

3.  Bought  o  on  9  mos  credit  o  the  following  articles  o  4  yds  o 
3  qrs  o  2  n  o  of  broadcloth  at  $12  a  yd  o  o  6  gals  o  1  pt  o  2 
gi  o  of  vinegar  at  65  cts  o  a  gal  o  o  and  3J  cords  of  wood  at 
$7.50  a  cord  o 

4.  Excellence  in  conversation  depends  o  in  a  great  measure  o 
on  the  attainments  which  one  has  made  o  if  o  therefore  o 
education  is  neglected  o  conversation  will  become  trifling  o  if 
perverted  o  corrupting. 

5.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field  o  rising  into  inequalities  o 
and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegeta- 
tion o  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn  o  shaven  by  the  scythe  o  and 
levelled  by  the  roller. 


pu:j^ctuation.  199 

V.  THE  INTERROGATION  POINT. 

An  Interrogation  Point  is  used  for  marking  ques- 
tions. 

In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  marked  off  by  it,  the  In- 
terrogation Point  is  equivalent  most  commonly  to  a  period  ;  but 
it  may  be  equivalent  to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma. 

It  is  a  question  of  some  importance  to  know,  in  each  case,  to  which  of 
these  four  points  the  interrogation  point  is  equivalent,  because  upon  thii 
depends  the  propriety  of  using,  or  not  using,  a  capital  after  it.  When  there 
is,  in  that  particular  construction,  but  one  interrogation  point,  it  is  always 
equivalent  to  a  period,  and  should  be  followed  by  a  capital.  When,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  succession  of  questions,  following  each  other  in  a  series,  with- 
out any  affirmative  sentences  intervening,  the  interrogation  point  some- 
times represents  sections  of  discourse  less  than  a  period.  The  way  to 
determine  to  which  class  the  particular  question  belongs  is  to  change  the 
construction  into  an  affirmative  form.  It  will,  in  one  case,  be  resolved  into 
a  series  of  independent  sentences,  separated  by  periods;  in  the  other,  into 
a  connected  or  continued  sentence,  with  co-ordinate  members  separated  by 
commas,  semicolons,  or  colons.     Example  : 

"  Who  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city?  who  will  lead  me  into  Edom? 
Wilt  not  thou,  0  God,  who  hast  cast  us  off"?  and  wilt  not  thou,  0  God,  go 
forth  with  our  hosts  ?  "  (Ps.  108  :  10, 11.)  Change  to  the  affirmative  form. 
"Some  one  will  bring  mo  into  the  strong  city;  some  one  will  lead  me  into 
Edom.  Thou,  0  God,  who  hast  cast  us  off,  wilt  do  it ;  thou,  0  God,  wilt  go 
forth  with  our  hosts." 

"Shall  a  man  obtain  the  favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety?  by  murder?  by 
falsehood  ?  by  theft?  "     Affirmatively :  "  A  man  cannot  obtain  the  favor  of 
Heaven  by  impiety,  by  murder,  by  falsehood,  by  theft." 
« 

RULE. 

Direct  Questions. — The  interrogation  point  should 
be  placed  at  the  end  of  every  direct  question. 

NOTES. 

1.  A  direct  question  is  one  in  regular  form,  requiring,  or  al  least  admit- 
ting an  answer;  as,  "  Why  do  you  neglect  your  duty?  "  An  indirect  ques- 
tion is  one  that  is  merely  reported  or  spoken  of;  as,  "  He  inquired  why  you 
neglected  your  duty." 

2.  When  there  is  a  succession  of  questions,  having  a  common  grammat- 
ical dependence  on  some  preceding  word  or  clause,  each  question  forming 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

by  itself  an  incomplete  sentence,  some  writers  place  an  interrogation  point 
at  the  end  of  the  series,  and  separate  the  several  members  by  a  dash,  or 
perhaps  by  a  comma.  This  method  of  punctuation  is  not  correct.  Each 
question,  no  matter  how  short  or  broken,  should  have  its  own  point.  See 
the  example  immediately  preceding  the  Rule. 

3.  Sometimes  a  question  is  intended,  although  the  words  are  not  put  in 
the  usual  interrogative  form.  Thus  :  "  You  will  come  this  afternoon  ?  "  In 
such  cases  the  interrogation  point  should  be  used,  as  in  this  example, 
although  the  sentence  may  be  declarative  in  its  form. 


3>©<C 


VI.  THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

The  Exclamation  Point  is  used  for  marking  strong 
emotion. 

In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  set  off  by  it,  the  exclamation  point, 
like  the  interrogation  point,  is  equivalent  commonly  to  a  period;  but  it  may 
be  equivalent  to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  The  same  considerations 
govern  here  that  govern  in  the  case  of  the  Interrogation. 

RULE  I. 

After  Strong  Emotion. — The  exclamation  point  must 
be  used  at  the  close  of  every  sentence,  clause,  or  gram- 
matical expression,  intended  to  convey  strong  emotion. 

Inexperienced  and  weak  writers  are  apt  to  deal  largely  in  the  use  of  the 
exclamation  point,  as  if  to  make  up  for  the  feebleness  of  the  thought  by 
mere  tricks  of  punctuation.  Young  writers  therefore  should  be  on  their 
guard  in  this  matter,  and  not  use  the  exclamation  point  unless  there  is  some 
real  and  strong  emotion  to  be  expressed. 

RULE  II. 

After  an  Interjection.  —  The  exclamation  point  must 
be  used  after  an  interjection ;  as.  Ah  me  ! 

NOTES. 

1.  Where  the  interjection  does  not  stand  by  itself,  but  forms  part  of  a 
sentence,  clause,  or  expression,  the  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  whole  expression,  and  not  immediately  after  the  interrogation ; 
as,  "  0  wretched  state !     0  bosom  black  as  death ! " 


PUNCTUATION.  201 

2.  Sometimes  oh  is  grammatically  separable  from  the  words  following  it, 
though  the  emotion  runs  through  the  whole.  In  that  case,  there  should  be 
a  comma  after  the  oh,  and  the  exclamation  point  at  the  end  of  the  whole 
expression ;  as,  "  Oh,  where  shall  rest  be  found  !  " 

3.  When  an  interjection  is  repeated  several  times,  the  words  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  comma,  the  exclamation  being  put  only  after  the  last ; 
as,  "Fie,  fie,  fie!  pah,  pah!  give  me  an  ounce  of  civet,  good  apothecary,  to 
sweeten  my  imagination." 

4.  Two  of  the  interjections,  eh  and  hey,  are  sometimes  uttered  in  a  peculiar 
tone,  so  as  to  ask  a  question.  In  that  case,  they  should  be  followed  by  the 
interrogation  point;  as,  "You  thought  you  would  not  be  found  out,  eh?" 

RULE  III. 

More  than  One  Exclamation  Point.  —  Where  the 
emotion  to  be  expressed  is  very  strong,  more  than  one 
exclamation  point  is  sometimes  used ;  as,  '*  That  man 
virtuous ! !  You  might  as  well  preach  to  me  of  the 
virtue  of  Judas  Iscariot ! !  " 

This  mode  of  repeating  the  exclamation  point  is  much  used  in  burlesque 
and  satire. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Tell  what  Point  is  needed  in  each  place  where  this  mark  o  occurs,  and 
give  the  Rule  for  the  same.] 

1.  Why  o  for  so  many  a  year  o  has  the  poet  wandered  amid 
the  fragments  of  Athens  and  Rome  o  and  paused  o  with  strange 
and  kindling  feelings  o  amid  their  broken  columns  o  their 
mouldering  temples  o  their  deserted  plains  o 

2.  Greece  o  indeed  o  fell  o  but  how  did  she  fall  o  Did  she  fall 
like  Babylon  o  Did  she  fall  like  Lucifer  o  never  to  rise  again  o 

3.  Have  you  eyes  o  Could  you  on  this  fair  mountain  leave  to 
feed  o  and  batten  on  this  moor  o  Ha  o  have  you  eyes  o  You 
cannot  call  it  love  o  for  o  at  your  age  o  the  hey-day  in  the 
blood  is  tame,  it's  humble,  and  waits  upon  the  judgment  o  and 
what  judgment  would  step  from  this  to  this  o 

4.  Charge  o  Chester  o  charge  o  on  o  Stanley  o  on  o 

5.  King  Charles  o  forsooth  o  had  so  many  private  virtues  o 
And  had  James  no  private  virtues  o  Was  even  Oliver  Cromwell 
o  his  bitterest  enemies  themselves  being  judges  o  destitute  of 
private  virtues  o  And  what  o  after  all  o  are  the  virtues  ascribed 
to  Charles  o 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

VII.  THE  DASH. 

The  Dash  is  used  chiefly,  either  to  mark  a  sudden 
change  or  interruption  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence, 
or  to  mark  some  elocutionary  pause. 

The  Dash,  which  is  of  modern  origin,  has  been  used  so  indiscriminately 
and  injudiciously  by  ill-informed  writers,  that  some  critics  have  insisted  on 
banishing  it  entirely.  This  would  be  only  going  to  another  extreme.  There 
are,  in  many  passages,  in  those  particularly  which  are  highly  rhetorical, 
turns  of  thought,  which  can  be  indicated  by  a  dash,  and  which  cannot  be 
indicated  by  any  of  the  ordinary  grammatical  points.  The  dash,  therefore, 
is  a  necessity  in  many  kinds  of  composition.  But  it  should  not  be  used  as 
a  substitute  for  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period,  or  interrogation,  as  in- 
expert writers  sometimes  do  mistakenly  use  it,  but  should  be  employed 
where  these  regular  marks  cannot  be  used,  and  to  express  things  which  they 
cannot  express.  The  dash,  therefore,  is  incorrect  whenever  any  one  of  these 
marks  could  be  substituted  for  it  without  changing  the  meaning.  Young 
writers  particularly  need  to  be  on  their  guard  in  using  the  dash.  Mark 
every  dash  as  wrong,  unless  some  positive  reason  for  its  use  can  be  given, 
and  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  none  of  the  ordinary  marks  would  express 
the  idea. 

RULE  I. 
Construction  Changed. — A  dash  is  used  where  the 
construction  of  the  sentence  is  abruptly  broken  off  or 
changed.     Example :  — 

Was  there  ever  a  bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band  ?  Was 
there  ever  —  but  I  scorn  to  boast. 

RULE  II. 

Unexpected  Change  in  Sentiment.  —  The  dash  is 
sometimes  used  to  mark  a  sudden  and  unexpected  change 
in  the  sentiment.     Example  :  — * 

He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind  — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt. 


PUNCTUATION.  203 

RULE  III. 

Emphatic  Generalization. — A  dash  is  sometimes 
used  to  mark  the  transition  from  a  succession  of  particu- 
lars to  some  emphatic  general  expression  which  includes 
them  all.     Example :  — 

He  was  witty,  learned,  industrious,  plausible,  —  everything  but 
honest. 

RULE  IV. 

A  Series  Dependent  upon  a  Concluding  Clause. 

—  When  there  is  a  long  series  of  clauses  or  expressions, 
all  dependent  upon  som#  concluding  clause,  it  is  usual, 
in  passing  from  the  preceding  part  of  the  passage  to  that 
upon  which  the  whole  depends,  to  mark  the  transition  by 
inserting  a  dash,  in  addition  to  the  comma.    Example :  — 

The  great  men  of  Rome,  her  beautiful  legends,  her  history,  the 
height  to  which  she  rose,  and  the  depth  to  which  she  fell, —  these 
make  up  one-half  of  the  student's  ideal  world. 

The  most  common  example  of  this  use  of  the  dash  is  where  the  gram- 
matical subject  or  nominative  is  loaded  with  numerous  adjuncts,  so  that 
there  is  danger  of  its  being  lost  sight  of  when  the  verb  is  introduced.  The 
insertion  of  the  dash  here  seems  to  give  the  mind  an  opportunity  of  going 
back  to  the  main  subject;  as,  "Every  step  in  the  attainment  of  physical 
power;  every  new  trait  of  intelligence,  as  they  one  by  one  arise  in  the  in- 
fantine intellect,  like  the  glory  of  night,  starting  star  by  star  into  the  sky, 

—  is  hailed  with  a  heart-burst  of  rapture  and  surprise." 

RULE  V. 

Rhetorical  Repetition. — When  a  word  or  an  expres- 
sion is  repeated  for  rhetorical  purposes,  the  construction 
being  begun  anew,  a  dash  should  be  inserted  before  each 
such  repetition.     Example :  — 

Shall  I,  who  was  born,  I  might  almost  say,  but  certainly  brought 
up,  in  the  tent  of  my  father,  that  most  excellent  general — shall  I, 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  conqueror  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  and  not  only  of  the  Alpine 
nations,  but  of  the  Alps  themselves  —  shall  I  compare  myself  with 
this  half-year  captain  ? 

Note.  —  This  kind  of  repetition  is  sometimes  called  by  elocutionists  the 
Echo. 

RULE  VI. 

Elocutionary  Pause.  —  A  dash  is  sometimes  used  to 
mark  a  significant  pause,  where  there  is  no  break  in  the 
grammatical  construction.     Example  ;  — 

You  have  given  the  command  to  a  person  of  illustrious  birth, 
of  ancient  family,  of  innumerable  statues,  but  —  of  no  experience. 

The  mark  here  is  purely  elocutionary.  A  good  reader  will  pause  some 
perceptible  time  after  the  hut,  whether  there  is  a  mark  there  or  not.  The  dash 
serves  to  indicate  to  the  eye  what  the  good  reader  will  indicate  by  his  voice. 
This  particular  use  of  the  dash  is  pretty  well  established,  and  it  is  not  worth 
while  to  make  any  change  in  regard  to  it  now.  But  were  the  matter  of 
elocutionary  notation  to  be  undertaken  anew.,  it  would  seem  better  to  mark 
this  suspension  of  the  voice  by  some  other  means  than  by  a  dash,  the  dash 
being  used  for  other  and  very  different  purposes. 

RULE  VII. 

Reflex  Apposition. — Words  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
and  standing  somewhat  detached,  and  referring  back  by 
apposition  to  preceding  parts  of  the  sentence,  should  be 
separated  from  the  previous  portions  by  a  dash.  Exam- 
ples :  — 

The  four  greatest  names  in  English  poetry  are  among  the  first 
we  come  to,  —  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton. 

Kings  and  their  subjects,  masters  and  their  slaves,  find  a  com- 
mon level  in  two  places,  —  at  the  cross,  and  in  the  grave. 

Note.  — The  dash  here  is  said  by  some  to  indicate  the  omission  of  namely, 
or  that  is.  It  is  true  that  one  of  these  expressions  might  be  inserted  in  most 
cases  that  come  under  this  rule,  but  the  passage  would  thereby  lose  in  rhetor- 
ical force.  The  dash,  in  this  case,  as  in  Rule  VI.,  is  in  fact  purely  elocution- 
ary. 


PUNCTUATION.  205 

RULE  VIII. 

The  Dash  Parenthetical. — Parenthetical  expressions 
are  sometimes  included  between  two  dashes,  instead  of 
the  usual  signs  of  parenthesis.     Examples :  — 

The  smile  of  a  child  —  always  so  ready  when  there  is  no  dis- 
tress, and  so  soon  recurring  when  that  distress  has  passed  away — 
is  like  an  opening  of  the  sky,  showing  heaven  beyond. 

The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of  things  without,  —  if  not,  as 
some  philosophers  have  said,  in  a  metaphysical  sense,  yet  in  a 
moral  sense, — exist  within  us. 

NOTES. 

1.  If,  when  the  parenthetical  part  is  removed  from  a  sentence  like  one  of 
these,  the  portions  remaining  require  no  point  between  them,  no  points 
besides  the  dashes  will  be  required  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  paren- 
thetical expression.  Thus,  in  the  first  of  the  foregoing  examples,  if  the 
parenthetical  part  be  left  out,  the  remaining  portion  will  read,  **  The  smile 
of  a  child  is  like  an  opening,"  etc.  But  if  the  parenthetical  part  be  left  out 
of  the  second  example,  it  will  read,  "  The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of 
things  without,  exist  within  us,"  with  a  comma  at  the  place  where  each  of 
the  dashes  come  in.  In  such  cases,  there  must  be  two  commas  in  the  paren- 
thetical form  of  the  sentence,  namely,  one  before  each  of  the  dashes,  as  in 
the  example. 

2.  If  the  parenthetical  words  express  an  interrogation  or  an  exclamation, 
they  must  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point  or  an  exclamation  point, 
before  the  concluding  dash  ;  as,  Religion  —  who  can  doubt  it?  —  is  the 
noblest  theme  for  the  exercise  of  the  intellect. 

3.  The  question,  whether  the  marks  which  separate  parenthetical  words 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  shall  be  dashes,  commas,  or  marks  of  paren- 
the«i8,  is  left  a  good  deal  to  the  fancy  of  the  writer.  The  subject  will  be 
more  particularly  explained  in  the  section  on  the  Parenthesis. 

RULE  IX. 

Question  and  Answer.  —  If  question  and  answer, 
instead  of  he^^inning  separate  lines,  are  run  into  a  para- 
graph, they  should  be  separated  by  a  dash.    Example : — 

Who  made  you?  — God.     What  else  did  God  make?— God 
made  all  things.     Why  did  God  make  you  and  all  things  ?  —  God 
made  all  things  for  his  own  glory. 
18 


206  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

RULE  X. 

Omissions. — The  dash  is  used  to  mark  the  omissions 

of  letters  or  figures ;  as,  — 

General  W n  captured  the  Hessians  at  Trenton. 

Matt.  9:1—6.  [N.  B.  This  is  equivalent  to  Matt.  9:  1,2,  3, 
4,  5,  6.] 

*RULE  XI. 

Examples  on  a  New  Line. — A  dash  should  follow 
as  and  thus,  when  the  example  following  them  begins  a 
new  line. 

For  example,  see  the  preceding  Rule. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Tell  what  point  is  needed  at  each  place  where  this  mark  o  occurs,  and 
give  the  Rule  for  the  same.] 

1.  Almost  all  kinds  of  raw  material  extracted  from  the  interior 
of  the  earth  o  metals  o  coals  o  precious  stones  o  and  the  like  o 
are  obtained  from  mines  differing  in  fertility. 

2.  Each  of  these  great  and  ever  memorable  struggles  o  Saxon 
against  Norman  o  villein  against  lord  o  Eoundhead  against 
Cavalier  o  Dissenter  against  Churchman  o  Manchester  against 
Old  Sarura  o  was  o  in  its  own  order  and  season  o  a  struggle  on 
the  result  of  which  were  staked  the  dearest  interests  of  the  human 
race  o 

3.  Here  lies  the  great  o  False  marble  o  where  o  Nothing 
but  sordid  dust  lies  here  o 

4.  Greece  o  Carthage  o  Rome  o  where  are  they  o 

5.  "  I  plunged  right  into  the  debate  o  and  "  o  "  Did  not  say 
a  word  to  the  point  o  of  course  "  o 

6.  "  How  are  you  o  Trepid  o  How  do  you  feel  to-day  o  Mr. 
Trepid?"  "A  great  deal  worse  than  I  was  o  thank  you  o 
almost  dead  o  I  am  obliged  to  you  "  o  "  Why  o  Trepid  o  what 
is  the  matter  with  you  "  o  "  Nothing  o  I  tell  you  o  nothing  in 
particular  o  but  a  great  deal  is  the  matter  with  me  in  general  "o 


PUNCTUATION.  207 

VIII.  THE  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Marks  of  Parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  words 
which  have  little  or  uo  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  word  parenthesis  (Greek  napfvStan,  innertion)  signifies  something 
inserted  or  put  in,  and  applies  primarily  to  a  sentence  or  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence inserted,  by  way  of  comment  or  explanation,  in  the  midst  of  another 
sentence,  of  which  it  is  independent  in  construction,  and  which  is  gram- 
matically complete  without  it. 

2.  We  must  distinguish  between  parenthesis  and  marks  of  parenthesis. 
The  parenthesis  is  the  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  that  is  inserted  into 
another  sentence.  The  marks  of  parenthesis  are  the  two  curved  lines  which 
inclose  the  words  thus  let  in.  The  term  marks  «/  purentheaix,  to  indicate 
these  curved  lines,  is  preferred  to  the  term  parentheses.  Parentheses  means 
properly  parenthetical  sentences,  not  marks  of  parenthesis. 

3.  Sometimes  commas,  and  sometimes  dashes,  are  used  instead  of  the 
curved  lines,  to  inclose  words  that  are  of  a  parenthetical  character,  and  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  determine  when  to  use  one  of  these  modes,  and  when  to 
use  another.  It  may  be  observed,  in  general,  that  the  curved  lines  mark 
the  greatest  degree  of  separation  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  the  dashes, 
the  next  greatest;  and  the  commas,  the  least  separation  of  all. 

Rule  for  Parenthesis. 

Words  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence,  and  nearly 
or  quite  independent  of  it  in  meaning  and  construction, 
should  be  inclosed  with  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

NOTES. 

1.  A  very  common  example  of  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis  is  in  the 
reports  of  speeches,  where  a  person  is  referred  to,  but  not  named.  In  the 
actual  delivery  of  the  speech,  the  person  meant  is  suflBciently  indicated  by 
the  speaker's  pointing  to  him,  or  looking  at  him,  or  by  other  significant 
gesture.  But  as  this  cannot  be  transferred  to  the  written  or  printed  page, 
the  reporter  usually  supplies  its  place  by  inserting  the  name  of  the  person 
meant,  and  the  name  thus  inserted  by  the  reporter  is  inclosed  by  marks  of 
parenthesis.  Thus:  "After  the  very  lucid  exposition  of  the  matter  by  the 
gentleman  opposite  to  me  (Mr.  Stuart),  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  mo  to 
Bay  much  in  defence  of  this  part  of  the  subject." 


208  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  In  reporting  speeches,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  excla- 
mations of  approbation  or  disapprobation  on  the  part  of  the  audience ;  as, 
"My  lords,  I  am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  declaration  (hear,  hear).  Yes, 
my  lords :  I  am  amazed,  that  one  in  his  position  could  so  far  forget  the 
proprieties  of  debate." 

3.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  a  query,  or  comment  of  any 
kind,  made  by  the  one  who  is  reporting,  copying,  or  quoting  the  words  of 
another;  as,  "  The  Romans  were  the  first  (indeed?)  who  learned  the  art  of 
navigation." 

4.  In  strict  accuracy,  the  marks  in  these  three  cases  (Notes  1,  2,  3)  should 
be  brackets,  because  the  matter  thus  inserted  is  really  an  interpolation  by 
the  reporter.  But  custom  has  sanctioned  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis 
in  these  cases.     [See  Section  IX.,  Brackets,  Note  2.] 

5.  In  scientific  works,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  figures  or 
letters  that  are  employed  in  enumerating  a,  list  of  particulars ;  as,  "  The 
unlawfulness  of  suicide  appears  from  the  following  considerations :  (1.) 
Suicide  is  unlawful  on  account  of  its  general  consequences.  (2.)  Because 
it  is  the  duty,"  etc. 

6.  If  no  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in  case 
there  were  no  parenthesis  there,  then  no  points  should  be  used  at  that  place, 
in  addition  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis ;  as,  "  The  Egyptian  style  of  archi- 
tecture (see  Dr.  Pocock's  work)  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek." 

7.  If  a  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in  case 
no  parenthesis  were  there,  then,  when  the  parenthesis  is  inserted,  said  point 
should  be  inserted  also,  and  should  be  placed  after  the  second  mark  of  paren- 
thesis ;  as,  "  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other,  is  the  most  ordinary  spring 
of  action."  "  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud 
man  himself),  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action." 

8.  If  the  parenthetical  part  of  a  sentence  requires  at  the  end  a  point  of  its 
own,  this  point  should  come  inside  of  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis,  and  the 
point  belonging  to  the  main  sentence  should  come  before  the  first  mark  of 
parenthesis  ;  as,  "  While  the  Christian  desires  the  approbation  of  his  fellow- 
men,  (and  why  should  he  not  desire  it?)  he  disdains  to  receive  their  good- 
will by  dishonorable  means." 


55<«c 


IX.  BRACKETS. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  in  a  sentence  a  word,  or 
words,  which  do  not  form  part  of  the  original  composi- 
tion. 


PUNCTUATION,  209 

NOTES. 

1.  Brackets  are  somewhat  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis  in  form,  one,  how- 
ever, being  angular,  the  other  curved,  and  are  also  in  some  respects  like  the 
latter  in  signification  and  use. 

2.  Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  a  sentence,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  within 
the  body  of  another  sentence,  and  thus  far  are  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 
But  the  matter  included  within  brackets  is  entirely  independent  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  so  differs  from  what  is  merely  parenthetical.  Further,  the  matter 
within  the  brackets  is  usually  inserted  by  one  writer  to  correct  or  add  to 
what  has  been  written  by  another,  while  the  parenthesis  is  a  part  of  the 
original  composition,  and  is  written  by  the  same  person  that  wrote  the  rest 
of  the  sentence. 

3.  The  comma  before  and  after,  the  dash  before  and  after,  the  marks  of 
parenthesis,  and  the  brackets,  all  have  something  in  common.  They  all 
are  used  to  include  matter  which  is  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence,  and 
which  is  more  or  less  independent  of  the  sentence,  and  extraneous  to  it. 
They  indicate  increasing  degrees  of  independence  and  extraneousness,  akout 
in  the  order  in  which  they  have  just  been  named,  the  comma  before  and 
after  showing  least,  and  the  brackets  showing  most,  of  this  independenoe. 

Rule  for  the  Use  of  Brackets. 

In  correcting  or  modifying  the  expressions  of  another, 
by  inserting  words  of  our  own,  the  words  thus  inserted 
should  be  inclosed  in  brackets.     Examples :  — 

A  soft  answer  turn  [turns]  away  wrath. 

The  number  of  our  days  are  [is]  with-  thee. 

The  letter  [which]  you  wrote  me  on  Saturday  came  duly  to  hand. 

The  captain  had  several  men  [who]  died  on  the  voyage. 

NOTES. 

1.  Brackets  are  used  in  critical  editions  of  ancient  authors  to  indicate 
that  in  the  opinion  of  the  editor  the  words  so  inclosed  are  an  interpolation, 
and  do  not  belong  to  the  original.  The  words  thus  bracketed  are  not  inter- 
polated by  the  editor,  but  the  editor  takes  this  means  of  indicating  that  they 
have  been  interpolated  by  somebody  else.  lie  fears  to  leave  the  words  out 
altogether,  because  they  have  stood  so  long  in  the  text,  but  he  takes  this 
means  of  showing  that  he  considers  them  spurious. 

2.  Brackets  are  used  in  dictionaries  to  separate  the  pronunciation,  or  the 
etymology  of  a  word,  or  some  incidental  remark  about  it,  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  explanation.  Thus  :  Resemblant  [Fr.  reaeembler,  to  resemble]. 
Having  resemblance.     [Rare.] 

18*  O 


210  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  points  before  and  after  the  brackets,  and  the 
punctuation  of  any  sentence  or  clause  within  the  brackets,  the  same  rules 
will  apply  that  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Examples  on  all  the  preceding  Rules. 

1.  The  last  words  of  Raleigh  were  o  "Why  dost  thou  not 
strike  o  Strike  o  man  o  "  o  To  the  executioner  o  who  was  paus- 
ing o  The  last  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  o  "  Traitor  o  thou 
hast  killed  me  o  "  o  To  the  assassin  Felton  o  The  last  of  Charles 
II.  o  "Don't  let  poor  Nelly  starve  o  "  o  Referring  to  Nell 
Gwynne  o  The  last  of  William  III.  o  "Can  this  last  longo" 
o  To  his  physician  o  The  last  of  Locke  o  "  Cease  now  o  "  o  To 
Lady  Markham  o  who  had  been  reading  the  Psalms  to  him  o 

2.  If  we  exercise  right  principles  o  and  we  cannot  have  them 
unless  we  exercise  them  o  they  must  be  perpetually  on  the  in- 
crease o 

3.  Are  you  still  o  I  fear  you  are  o  far  from  being  comfort- 
ably settled  o 

4.  Know  then  this  truth  o  enough  for  man  to  know  o 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  o 

5.  The  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  o  see  Dr  Pocock  o  not 
his  discourses  o  but  his  prints  o  was  apparently  the  mother  of 
the  Greek  o 


X.   QUOTATION  MARKS. 

A  Quotation  is  the  introduction  into  one's  discourse 
of  a  word  or  of  words  uttered  by  some  one  else. 

The  marks  of  quotation  are  two  inverted  commas  (")  at  the  beginning, 
and  two  apostrophes  ('*)  at  the  end,  of  the  portion  quoted. 

RULE   I. 

"Words  from  Another  Author.  —  A  word  or  words 
introduced  from  some  other  author  should  be  inclosed 
by  quotation  marks. 


PUNCTUATION.  211 

NOTES. 

1.  It  is  proper  for  a  writer  to  use  quotation  marks  in  introducing  words 
from  some  other  writings  of  his  own,  if  the  words  thus  introduced  are  in- 
tended as  a  citation. 

2.  A  writer,  in  quoting  from  himself,  may  use  his  option  in  regard  to  the 
use  of  quotation  marks.  It  depends  upon  whether  he  does,  or  does  not, 
wish  to  make  a  reference  to  his  previous  writings.  We  have  no  such  op- 
tion, however,  when  using  the  words  of  other  people.  To  use  the  words 
of  others  without  acknowledging  them  to  be  such,  is  plagiarism,  which  is 
only  another  name  for  atealiug.  It  is,  however,  a  breach  of  the  Decalogue, 
rather  than  of  Grammar. 

3.  Sometimes,  in  quoting  from  another,  we  wish  for  convenience  to  give 
the  substance  only  of  his  meaning,  but  not  his  exact  words.  In  such  a  case, 
we  may  show  that  the  wording  has  been  thus  altered,  by  using  only  one 
inverted  comma  and  one  apostrophe,  instead  of  two.  Thus :  The  last  six 
commandments  are,  *  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother.  Thou  shalt  not 
kill.  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.  Thou  shalt  not 
bear  false  witness.  Thou  shalt  not  covet.'  Unless  we  indicate  in  this  way, 
or  by  express  remark,  that  the  phraseology  has  been  altered,  we  should  in 
quoting  bo  careful  to  give  the  exact  words  of  the  author,  especially  where 
the  quotation  is  from  Holy  Scripture.  Any  alteration  whatever  in  the 
words  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  is  regarded  as  dishonest,  unless  in  some 
manner  we  distinctly  indicate  that  such  alteration  has  been  made. 

4.  Quotation  marks  are  not  proper  when  we  state  the  opinion  of  others 
in  language  of  our  own ;  as,  Socrates  said  that  he  believed  the  soul  to  be 
immortal.  If  this  expression  be  changed,  so  as  to  give  the  exact  words  of 
Socrates,  then  the  quotation  marks  will  be  needed ;  as,  Socrates  said,  "  I 
believe  the  soul  to  be  immortal." 

6.  Short  phrases  from  foreign  languages  are  usually  printed  in  italics, 
instead  of  being  inclosed  in  quotation  marks;  as.  He  believed  in  the  prin- 
ciple of  nil  admirari.  Titles  and  names  of  various  kinds  are  sometimes 
marked  in  this  way ;  as.  The  Tempest  is  regarded  by  some  as  one  of  Shak- 
speare's  earliest  plays.  This  practice,  however,  is  not  so  much  in  vogue  as 
it  was,  the  tendency  at  present  being  to  use,  in  all  such  cases,  the  quotation 
marks  instead  of  italics. 

RULE  II. 

A  Quotation  within  a  Quotation.  —  When  a  quota- 
tion incloses  within  it  another  quotation,  the  external 
quotation  has  tlie  double  marks,  and  the  one  included  has 
only  the  single  marks.     Examples :  — 


212  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

It  has  been  well  said,  "The  command,  'Thou  shalt  not  kill/ 
forbids  many  crimes  besides  that  of  murder." 

Some  one  has  said,  "  What  an  argument  for  prayer  is  contained 
in  the  words,  '  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven ! ' " 

RULE  III. 

Consecutive  Paragraphs  Quoted.  —  When  several 
consecutive  paragraphs  are  quoted,  the  inverted  commas 
should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph, 
but  the  apostrophes  only  at  the  end  of  the  whole  quota- 
tion. 

NOTES. 

1.  If  the  several  paragraphs  thus  quoted  do  not  come  together  in  the 
original,  but  are  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay,  each 
several  paragraph  should  begin  and  end  with  quotation  marks. 

2.  If  the  extract  forms  but  one  paragraph,  but  is  made  up  of  several  de- 
tached portions  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay  quoted,  the 
fact  that  the  extracts  are  not  continuous  may  be  shown,  either  by  inserting 
points  (.  .  .  .)  at  each  place  where  there  is  a  break,  or  by  inclosing  each 
detached  portion  with  quotation  marks. 

3.  In  some  publications,  the  inverted  commas  are  inserted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  line  of  a  quotation.  The  London  Times  always  punctuates  in 
this  way.  So  do  some  American  newspapers.  The  practice  is  more  com- 
mon in  England  than  in  America,  but  as  it  encumbers  and  disfigures  the 
page  without  any  real  advantage,  the  tendency  in  both  countries  is  towards 
the  simpler  method  prescribed  in  Rule  III. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  This  definition  o  Dr  o  Latham  o  from  whom  we  borrowed 
it  o  illustrates  o  in  his  work  on  the  o  English  Language  o  p  o 
359  o  by  the  expression  o  a  sharp-edged  instrument  o ,  which 
means  an  instrument  with  sharp  edges. 

2.  The  words  o  all-wise  o  ,  o  incense-breaking  o  ,  o  book- 
seller o  ,  and  o  noble-man  o  are  compounds. 

3.  o  There  is  but  one  object  o  o  says  Augustine  o  o  greater 
than  the  soul  o  and  that  one  is  its  Creator  o  o 

4.  o  Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nation  o  o  said  Fletcher 
of  Saltoun  o  o  and  I  care  not  who  makes  the  laws  o  o 

5.  When  Fenelon's  library  was  on  fire  o  o  God  be  praised  o  o 
said  he  o  o  that  it  is  not  the  dwelling  of  a  poor  man  o  o 


CAPITALS. 

KuLE  1.  First  Word  in  a  Sentence. —  The  first  word  in  a 
sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  2.  First  Word  of  an  Example.—  The  first  word  of  a 
sentence  or  clause  which  is  given  as  an  example  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Temperance  promotes  health." 

Rule  3.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Cluestion.—  The  first  word 
of  a  direct  question  should  begin  with  a  capital.    Examples :  — 

(Direct.)      His  words  are,  "  Why  do  you  not  study  the  lesson  ?  " 
(Indirect.)  He  desires  to  know  why  you  do  not  study  the  lesson. 

Rule  4.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Quotation.—  The  first  word 
of  a  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital.     Examples :  — 

(Direct.)  Plutarch  says,  "Lying  is  the  vice  of  slaves." 
(Indirect.)  Plutarch  says  that  lying  is  the  vice  of  slaves. 

Rule  5.  First  Word  after  a  Period.—  The  first  word  after  a 
period,  except  when  used  as  an  abbreviation,  should  begin  with 
a  capital. 

Rule  6.  After  an  Interrogation.—  A  capital  should  follow 
the  mark  of  interrogation,  when  equivalent  to  a  period,  as  it 
usually  is. 

Rule  7.  Numbered  Clauses. —  Clauses,  when  separately  num- 
bered, should  begin  with  a  capital,  though  not  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  period  ;  as,  — 

This  writer  asserts,  1.  That  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations;  2. 
That  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve;  3.  That  knowledge  will 
always  be  progressive,  and,  4.  That  all  future  generations  will  continue  to 
make  discoveries. 

Rule  8.  Quoting  Titles. —  Tn  quoting  the  title  of  a  book,  every 
noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  and  adverb  should  begin  with  a  capital ; 
as,  "  Sparks's  Life  of  Washington." 

Rule  9.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  O,  should  always 
be  capital  letters. 

Rule  10.  Poetry. —  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

213 


214  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  11.  Names  of  God.—  All  names  and  titles  of  God  should 
begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Jehovah,  Father,  Creator,  Almighty,  etc. 

Note  1.  When  any  name  usually  applied  to  the  Supreme  Being  is  used 
for  a  created  being,  it  does  not  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  ''  The  Lord  is  a 
great  God  above  all  gods."     "  Lord  of  lords." 

Note  2.  Providence  is  sometimes  used  to  mean  God,  that  is,  the  One  who 
provides  for  us ;  Heaven  likewise  is  used  to  mean  the  One  who  reigns  in 
heaven.  In  such  cases  the  word  should  begin  with  a  capital.  But  if  only 
God's  providential  care,  or  his  place  of  abode  is  meant,  a  capital  is  not 
needed. 

Note  3.  The  adjectives  eternal,  universal,  heavenly,  divine,  etc.,  when 
applied  to  God,  need  not  begin  with  a  capital,  unless  something  in  the  par- 
ticular instance  makes  them  emphatic.  Custom,  however,  has  made  cap- 
itals necessary  in  the  following  instances:  Almighty  God,  Infinite  One, 
Supreme  Being,  First  Cause. 

Note  4.  When  an  attribute  of  God  is  expressed,  not  by  an  adjective,  as 
in  the  instances  above,  but  by  a  noun  dependent  upon  another  noun,  as, 
"  Father  of  mercies,"  the  dependent  noun  in  such  combinations  does  not 
require  a  capital. 

Note  5.  "  Son  of  God,"  as  applied  to  our  Saviour,  requires  that  both 
nouns  should  begin  with  a  capital;  "Son  of  man"  requires  no  capital  for 
the  latter  noun. 

Note  6.  Great  diversity  prevails  in  regard  to  the  pronouns,  when  refer- 
ring to  God.  Some  authors,  in  printing  a  hymn  or  a  prayer,  make  the  page 
fairly  bristle  with  capitals,  every  pronoun  that  refers  in  any  manner  to  God 
being  decorated  in  that  manner.  The  first  stage  of  this  fancy  is  that  which 
prints  in  this  manner  Thou,  Thine,  Thee.  In  the  second  stage.  He,  His, 
Him  are  thus  treated.  The  last  and  highest  stage  shows  itself  in  the  rela- 
tive pronouns,  Who,  Whose,  and  Whom.  In  the  standard  editions  of  the 
English  Bible,  the  pronouns,  when  referring  to  God,  are  never  printed  in 
this  way,  not  even  in  forms  of  direct  address  to  the  Deity;  as,  "But  thou, 
0  Lord,  be  merciful  unto  me,"  etc. 

Rule  12.  Proper  Names. —  All  proper  names  should  begin 
with  capitals;  as,  Jupiter,  Mahomet,  Brahma,  Pompey,  Lake 
Erie,  Monday,  Good  Friday,  Rome,  China,  France. 

Note  1.  The  word  devil,  when  used  to  designate  Satan,  should  begin  with 
a  capital;  in  all  other  cases,  with  a  small  letter;  as,  "  The  Devil  and  his 
angels."     "  The  devils  also  believe  and  tremble." 

Note  2.  The  same  persons  who  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  the  pronouns 
when  referring  to  God,  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  heaven  and  hell  when 
referring  to  the  abodes  of  the  blessed  and  of  the  lost.  But  such  is  not  the 
usage  in  the  Bible,  which  is  the  most  carefully  printed  book  in  the  language. 


PUNCTUATION.  215 

"If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  thou  art  there;  if  I  make  my  bed  in  hell, 
behold,  thou  art  there." 

Note  3.  North,  Southy  Ea»t,  and  West,  when  used  to  denote  certain  parts 
of  the  country  or  of  the  world,  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  "  This  man 
evidently  is  a  native  of  the  West."  But  when  they  denote  merely  geograph- 
ical direction,  they  should  begin  with  a  small  letter;  as,  "Ohio  lies  west  of 
the  Alleghanies." 

Note  4.  When  a  name  is  compounded  of  a  proper  noun  and  of  some  other 
word  which  is  not  a  proper  noun,  connected  by  a  hyphen,  the  part  which  is 
not  a  proper  noun  begins  with  a  capital,  if  it  precedes  the  hyphen,  but  with 
a  small  letter,  if  it  follows  the  hyphen;  as,  Pre-Adamite,  New-England, 
Sunday-sohool. 

Rule  13.  Words  derived  from  Proper  Names.  —  Words 
derived  from  proper  names  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as, 
Mahometan,  Brahmin,  Christian,  Roman ;  French,  Spanish, 
Grecian ;  to  Christianize,  to  Judaize,  to  Romanize,  etc. 

Note  1.  The  names  of  religious  sects,  whether  derived  from  proper  names 
or  otherwise,  begin  with  a  capital ;  as.  Christians,  Pagans,  Jews,  Gentiles, 
Lutherans,  Calvinists,  Protestants,  Catholics,  etc.  The  names  of  political 
parties  likewise  begin  with  capitals ;  as.  Democrats,  Republicans,  Radicals, 
Conservatives,  etc. 

Note  2.  Some  words,  derived  originally  from  proper  names,  have  by  long 
and  familiar  usage  lost  all  reference  to  their  origin,  and  are  printed  like 
ordinary  words,  without  capitals;  a.s,  timonyj  damask,  jalap,  godlike, phil- 
ippic, to  hector,  to  galvanize,  to  japan,  etc. 

Rule  14.  Titles  of  Honor  and  Office.—  Titles  of  honor  and 
office  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  The  President  of  the  United 
States,  His  Honor  the  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  President  Madison, 
Queen  Victoria,  Sir  Robert  Murchison,  Your  Royal  Highness,  etc. 

Note.  —  The  term  father,  when  used  to  denote  one  of  the  early  Christian 
writers,  is  always  printed  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Chrysostom  and  Augustine 
are  among  the  most  voluminous  of  the  Fathers." 

Rule  15.  Subjects  first  introduced.—  In  works  of  a  scientific 
character,  when  the  subject  of  a  particular  section  is  defined,  or 
is  first  introduced,  it  begins  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  A  Pronoun  is  a 
word  used  instead  of  a  noun." 

Rule  16.  The  Bible. —  A  capital  is  always  used  for  the  terms 
ordinarily  employed  to  designate  the  Bible,  or  any  particular  part 
or  book  of  the  Bible ;  as,  The  Holy  Bible,  the  Sacred  Writings, 


216  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  Old  Testament,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Revelation,  etc. 
In  like  manner,  a  capital  is  used  in  giving  the  names  of  other 
sacred  writings,  as  the  Koran,  the  Zend  Avesta,  the  Puranas,  etc. 

Rule  17.  Words  of  Special  Importance.  —  Words  describ- 
ing the  great  events  of  history,  or  extraordinary  things  of  any 
kind,  which  have  acquired  a  distinctive  name,  begin  with  a 
capital ;  as,  the  Reformation,  the  Revolution,  the  war  of  Inde- 
pendence, the  Middle  Ages,  Magna  Charta,  the  Gulf  Stream,  etc. 

Rule  18.  Personification.  —  In  cases  of  strongly  marked  per- 
sonification, the  noun  personified  should  begin  with  a  capital  ; 
as,— 

"  Hope  for  a  season  bade  the  world  farewell. 
And  Freedom  shrieked  as  Kosciusko  fell." 

Note. —  This  rule,  like  that  in  regard  to  words  of  special  importance, 
requires  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Young  and  inexperienced 
writers  are  prone  to  applj'  it  too  frequently. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  for  Practice. 

[Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  make  the  necessary  corrections 
in  regard  to  capitals,  giving  your  reasons  for  each  alteration.] 

1.  Charles  notwithstanding  the  delay  had  left  england  to  work 
his  way  as  best  he  might  out  of  his  Difficulties 

2.  the  scots  therefore  at  the  break  of  day  entered  the  Castle 

3.  Fashion  is  for  the  most  part  the  ostentation  of  Riches 

4.  besides  if  you  labor  in  moderation  it  will  conduce  to  Health 
as  well  as  to  Wealth 

5.  Sir  Peter  Carew  for  some  unknown  reason  had  written  to 
ask  for  his  pardon 

6.  The  Man  when  He  saw  this  departed 

7.  Elizabeth  who  had  been  requested  to  attend  was  not  present 

8.  The  frost  had  set  in  the  low  damp  ground  was  hard  the 
Dykes  were  frozen 

9.  she  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth 

the  sweetest  mildest  land  on  earth 

10.  Give  me  a  sanctified  and  just  a  charitable  and  humble  a 
religious  and  contented  spirit 

11.  The  ocelot  a  beautiful  and  striped  fiend  hisses  like  a  snake 

12.  Well  Sir  Nicholas  what  news 

13.  Zaccheus  make  haste  and  come  down 


PUNCTUATION.  217 

14.  The  conspiracy  being  crushed  without  bloodshed  an  inquiry 
into  its  origin  could  be  carried  out  at  leisure 

15.  Thus  preciously  freighted  the  Spanish  fleet  sailed  from 
Corunna 

16.  Cruel  and  savage  as  the  Persecution  had  become  it  was 
still  inadequate 

17.  Faith  is  opposed  to  infidelity  hope  to  despair  charity  to 
enmity  and  hostility 

18.  Elizabeth  threw  herself  in  front  of  Marie  Antoinette  ex- 
claiming I  am  the  queen 

19.  Kant  said  give  me  matter  and  I  will  build  the  world 

20.  Whatever  happens  Mary  exclaims  Elizabeth  I  am  the  wife 
of  the  Prince  of  Spain  crown  rank  life  all  shall  go  before  I  will 
take  any  other  husband. 

21.  In  this  way  we  learned  that  miss  Steele  never  succeeded  in 
catching  the  doctor  that  Kitty  Bennett  was  satisfactorily  married 
by  a  clergj'man  near  Pemberton  that  the  "considerable  sum" 
given  by  Mrs.  Norris  to  William  Price  was  one  pound  and  that 
the  letters  placed  by  Churchill  before  Jane  Fairfax  which  she 
swept  away  unread  contained  the  word  pardon 

22.  Ars  in  latin  is  the  contrary  of  in-ers  it  is  the  contrary  of  in- 
action it  is  action 

23.  there  are  five  moods  the  indicative  the  potential  the  sub- 
junctive the  imperative  and  the  infinitive 

24.  Princes  have  courtiers  and  merchants  have  partners  the 
voluptuous  have  companions  and  the  wicked  have  accomplices 
none  but  the  virtuous  have  friends 

25.  in  his  last  Moments  He  uttered  these  words  i  fall  a  sacrifice 
to  sloth  and  luxury 

26.  Bacon  Francis  usually  known  as  Lord  bacon  was  born  in 
London  England  Jan  22  1560  and  died  1626  he  was  famous  as  a 
scholar  a  wit  a  lawyer  a  judge  a  statesman  a  politician  but  chiefly 
as  a  philosopher 

19 


FIGURES. 

A  Figure  in  language  is  some  deviation  from  the  usual  mode 
of  speech  with  a  view  of  making  the  language  more  eflfective. 
This  deviation  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  word,  and  then  it  relates 
to  Orthography  and  Etymology;  it  may  be  in  its  construction 
with  the  other  words  of  a  sentence,  and  then  it  relates  to  Syntax ; 
it  may  be  in  the  meaning  of  a  word,  and  then  it  relates  to  Ehetoric. 

I.  FIGURES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY  AND  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  Figure  of  Orthography  or  Etymology  is  some  deviation 
from  the  usual  form  of  a  word.  The  principal  figures  of  this 
kind  are  eight;  Aphceresis,  Syncope,  Apocope,  Prosthesis,  Paragoge, 
Synoeresis,  Diceresis,  and  Tmesis. 

Aphseresis  takes  away  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning 
of  a  word ;  as,  ^gan,  for  began. 

Syncope  rejects  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a  word; 
as,  lov^d,  for  loved;  e'er,  for  ever. 

Apocope  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end ;  as,  th\  for 
the  ;  yon,  for  yonder. 

Prosthesis  prefixes  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  beginning  of  a 
word ;  as,  enchain,  for  chain  ;  adown,  for  down. 

Paragoge  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  end ;  as,  awaken,  for 
awake ;  vasty,  for  vo^t. 

Synaeresis  is  the  contraction  of  two  vowels  or  of  two  syllables 
into  one ;  as,  walkst,  for  walkest.  Two  words  also  are  frequently 
contracted  into  one;  as,  ^ Tis,  for  it  is;  'twas,  for  it  was;  we'll, 
for  we  will. 

Diaeresis  is  placing  the  mark  '*  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels  to 
show  that  they  are  not  to  be  sounded  as  a  diphthong ;  as,  in  zoology. 

Tmesis  separates  a  compound  word  by  putting  a  word  be- 
tween ;  as,  "  To  God  ward,"  that  is,  "  Toward  God." 

II.  FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 

A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  some  deviation  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction of  a  word.  The  figures  of  this  kind  are  usually  reckoned 
four ;  Ellipsis,  Pleonasm,  Enallage,  and  Hyperbaton. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to  supply  the  regular 
or  full  construction ;  as,  "  Eeading  makes  a  full  man ;  conversa- 
tion [makes]  a  ready  man;  and  writing  [makes]  an  exact  man." 

218 


FIGURES.  219 

Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words ;  as,  "  I  went  home 
fiill  of  a  great  many  serious  reflections."  Here  the  words  a 
great  many  must  be  cancelled,  as  unnecessary. 

Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another;  as, 
"  Slow  rises  merit,  when  by  poverty  depressed." 

Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words;  as,  "  Come,  nymph 
demure."  It  frequently  imparts  energy  to  a  sentence,  and  is 
very  common  in  poetry. 

III.  FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  proper  and  literal 
meaning  of  a  word  or  phrase. 

The  following  are  the  principal  Figures  of  Rhetoric:  Simile, 
Metaphor,  Allegory,  Antithesis,  Metonymy,  Synecdoche,  Interroga- 
tion, Exclamation,  Apostrophe,  Personification,  Hyperbole,  Irony. 

A  Simile  is  a  formal  comparison  between  two  objects,  expressed 
by  the  words  like  or  as.  Thus,  we  can  say  of  a  horse,  "  He  is  as 
swift  as  the  wind;  "  and  of  a  man,  "He  is  as  firm  as  a  rock." 

A  Metaphor  expresses  a  resemblance  between  two  objects 
without  the  sign  of  comparison  like  or  as;  thus,  "Thy  word  is 
a  lamp  to  my  feet,  and  a  light  to  my  path."  A  metaphor  im- 
plies a  comparison,  and  differs  from  a  simile  only  in  form,  the 
sign  of  comparison  being  omitted.  Thus,  when  I  say,  "  A  hero 
is  like  a  lion,"  I  use  a  simile ;  but  when  I  say,  "  A  hero  is  a 
lion,"  I  employ  a  metaphor. 

An  Allegory  is  a  description  of  one  thing  under  the  image 
of  another :  it  is  a  sort  of  continued  metaphor. 

The  following  from  the  80th  Psalm  is  a  beautiful  allegory,  in  which  the  Jewish 
nation  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  a  vine.  "Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out 
of  Egypt ;  thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room 
before  it ;  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it ;  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars. 
It  sent  out  its  boughs  into  the  sea  and  its  branches  into  the  river.  Why  hast  thou 
broken  down  its  hedges,  so  that  all  they  who  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  it?  The 
boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it." 

Antithesis  consists  in  putting  two  unlike  things  in  juxtaposi- 
tion, so  that  each  will  appear  more  striking  by  the  contrast;  as, 
"  The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs  himself." 

A  Metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  we  put  the  cause  for  the 
effect,  or  the  effect  for  the  cause,  the  container  for  the  thing  con- 
tained, the  sign  for  the  thing  signified,  etc.    Thus,  1.  The  cause  for 


220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

the  effect,  or  the  author  for  his  works;  as,  "I  am  reading  Virgil;" 
that  is,  his  works.  2.  The  effect  for  the  cause ;  as,  "  Greij  hairs 
should  be  respected ; "  that  is,  old  age.  3.  The  container  for  the 
thing  contained;  as,  "The  kettle  boils,"  meaning  the  water.  4. 
The  sign  for  the  thing  signified;  as,  "He  assumes  the  sceptre;" 
that  is,  "  He  assumes  the  sovereignty." 

A  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  by  which  the  whole  is  put  for  a 
part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole,  a  definite  for  an  indefinite  number, 
etc.;  as,  "Man  returns  to  the  dust,"  meaning  only  his  body^ 
"  He  earns  his  bread,"  meaning  all  the  necessaries  of  life. 

Interrogation  is  a  question  put,  not  to  get  an  answer,  but  to 
express  our  own  opinions  more  strongly.  Thus,  "The  Lord  is 
not  a  man  that  he  should  lie,  neither  the  son  of  man  that  he 
should  repent.  JTath  he  said  it  ?  and  shall  he  not  do  it  f  Hath 
he  spoken  it  f  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good  ?  " 

Exclamation  is  used  to  express  agitated  feeling,  admiration, 
wonder,  surprise,  anger,  joy,  etc.;  thus,  "O  the  depth  of  the 
riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God ! " 

Apostrophe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  subject  of  discourse,  to 
address  some  other  person  or  thing ;  as,  "  It  advances,  and  with 
menacing  aspect  slides  into  the  heart  of  the  city.  0  my  coun- 
try !  ah !  Ilium,  the  habitation  of  the  gods ! "  Personification 
and  apostrophe  so  nearly  coincide,  that  they  are  frequently  con- 
founded. The  former,  however,  consists  in  giving  life  to  inani- 
mate objects,  and  the  latter  in  abruptly  addressing  objects  thus 
animated,  or  persons  that  are  dead  or  absent. 

Personification  is  that  figure  by  which  we  attribute  life  and 
action  to  inanimate  objects ;  as,  "  The  thirsty  ground ;  "  "  The  angry 
ocean;"  "The  mountains  saw  Thee,  O  Lord,  and  they  trembled." 

A  Hyperbole  is  a  figure  that  represents  things  as  greater  or 
less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  are  in  reality ;  thus,  David,  speak- 
ing of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  says,  "  They  were  swifter  than  eagles, 
they  were  sb^onger  than  lions." 

Irony  is  a  figure  by  which  we  express  ourselves  in  a  manner 
contrary  to  our  thoughts,  not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add 
force  to  our  observations.  Thus,  the  prophet  Elijah,  in  challeng- 
ing the  priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity,  ironi- 
cally says,  "  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god ;  either  he  is  talking,  or 
he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth, 
and  must  be  awaked." 


VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  words  into  poetical 
lines  or  verses. 

I.  VERSES. 

A  poetical  line  or  verse  consists  of  a  certain  number  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  arranged  according  to  fixed 
rules.  It  was  originally  called  verse,  from  the  Latin  verto,  I 
turn,  because  when  we  have  finished  one  line,  we  turn  back  to 
commence  another. 

A  couplet  consists  of  two  successive  lines  rhyming  together. 

A  triplet  consists  of  three  successive  lines  rhyming  together. 

A  stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  lines,  varying  in  num- 
ber according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting  a  regular 
division  of  a  poem  or  song.  The  word  verse,  which  strictly 
means  only  a  single  line,  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  stanza. 

Rhyme  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  correspondence  of  the  last 
sound  of  one  line  to  the  last  sound  of  another. 

Blank  verse  is  the  name  given  to  that  species  of  poetry  which 
is  without  rhyme. 

II.  FEET. 

Feet  are  the  smaller  portions  into  which  a  line  or  verse  is 
divided.  They  are  called  feet,  because  by  their  aid  the  voice 
steps  along,  as  it  were,  through  the  verse  in  a  measured  pace. 

The  syllables  which  mark  this  regular  movement  of  the  voice, 
should,  in  some  manner,  be  distinguished  from  the  others. 
This  distinction  was  made  among  the  ancient  Romans,  by  divid- 
ing their  syllables  into  long  and  short ;  and  the  long  syllables, 
being  the  more  important,  marked  the  movement.  In  English, 
syllables  are,  for  this  purpose,  divided  into  accented  and  unac- 
cented ;  the  accented  syllables,  which  show  the  movement,  are 
distinguished  by  the  mark  of  a  long  syllable,  and  the  unaccented 
by  the  mark  of  a  short  syllable. 

The  feet  ordinarily  used  in  English  poetry  are  four  in  num- 
ber ;  two  of  two  syllables,  and  two  of  three  syllables. 

Feet  of  two  syllables. 

1.  An  Iambus  "  " ;  as,  defend. 

2.  A  Trochee  ~  "  ;  as,  noblg. 

19  *  221 


222  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Feet  of  three  syllables. 

3.  An  Anapaest  "  "  "  ;  as,  Intercede. 

4.  A  Dactyl        -  -  - .  ^^g^  virtiioiis. 

III.   KINDS  OF  VERSE. 

The  kind  of  verse  to  which  any  piece  of  poetry  belongs  de- 
pends upon  the  kind  of  foot  by  which  it  is  chiefly  formed. 
Hence  it  is  styled  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapcestic,  or  Dactylic  verse^ 
,  according  as  the  prevailing  foot  is  an  Iambus,  a  Trochee,  an 
Anapaest,  or  a  Dactyl. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  verse  is  subdivided  according  to  the 
number  of  feet  or  metres  in  a  line.  A  line  consisting  of  only 
one  foot  is  called  a  Monometer  ;  of  two  feet,  a  Dimeter  ;  of  three 
feet,  a  Trimeter ;  of  four  feet,  a  Tetrameter  ;  of  five  feet,  a  Penta- 
meter;  of  six  feet,  a  Hexameter.  There  being  thus  six  different 
lengths  for  each  of  the  four  kinds  of  verse,  we  have  in  all  twenty- 
four  varieties.     These  are  exhibited  in  the  following  tables: 

1.  Iambic. 

1.  —  Manometer,    \'^   -       | 

I  awake  | 

2.  — Dimeter,         |  «      -  |     «    -      | 

I  to  nie  I  the  rose  [ 
Z.— Trimeter,        |«       -  |    w     -    |  «        -      j 
I  in  pla  I  ces  far  ]  and  near  | 

4.  —  Tetrameter,    |«  .|w-jw-|w.      | 

I  and  may  |  at  last  |  my-  wea  |  rf  age  | 

5.  —  Pentameter,    |«      -         |«       "I"'"        I*'"!      *^      "I 

I  hOw  loved  |  how  val  |  ued  once  |  avails  |  thee  not  | 

6.  —  Hexameter,    |      «-       |«-|^-       I      ^-       l«-l«-  I 

I  thy  realm  |  forev  |  er  lasts  |  th^  own  |  Messi  ]  ah  reigns  | 

2.  Trochaic. 

1.  —  Monometer,    \      "    "  | 

I  mercj?"  | 

2.  — Dimeter,         \-        «  1      -         «    1 

I  on  the  I  mountain  | 
Z.— Trimeter,        |       -      «    I     -        «      I      -       «      I 

I  when  otlr  |  hearts  are  |  mourning  | 
^.—  Tetrameter,     |-      '^l       -w|-      «I-         «| 

I  lovely  I  Thais  |  sits  b6  |  side  thge  | 

5.  — Pentameter,    I-«     |-      «I      -      «|-       "I"''! 

I  Satyrs  I  by  th6  |  brooklet  |  love  to  |  dally  | 

6.  — Hexameter,     |-«|-        «|       -  ^^l"        «!-«[-   v| 

I  on  a  I  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  [  willow  \ 


VERSIFICATION.  223 

3.  Anapaestic. 

1.— Monomeier,    I  ««  -    | 

I  r6f6r6e  | 
2.  —  Dimeter,         |  v        w       -    |  w      w      -      f 

I  <jn  thd  plain  |  &8  hd  strode  | 
Z.—  TiHmeler,        |vw        "I**         **-         l''^"! 

I  I  woQld  hide  j  with  the  beasts  |  df  thd  chase  | 
^—Tetrameter,     \       ww.|v  w-        |v      w.|ww        -| 

I  when  r6p0  |  sing  that  night  |  On  my  pal  |  I6t  Of  straw  | 
6. — Pentameter, 

|wv-|vw  -|vv  -|«  v-|vv-| 

I  On  thfi  warm  |  ch6ek  of  youth  |  th6  gJly  smilo  |  ind  th6  rose  |  6v6r  blend  | 
C.  —  Hexameter, 

I     -        —       I-        —    I  -        —      I  —  -     i-  «      -  I-    .    -     I 

I  bat  the  leavesj&re  beglninlng  to  with  |  5r  and  droopl&nd  th6y  dielln  &  day  | 

■4.  Dactylic. 

1.  —  Monomeier,    f     '    ^^    I 

I  merciful  | 

2.  — Dimeter,         |    -         «    «    |    -     «    v  | 

I  take  hfir  Qp  |  tenderly  | 
Z.—  Tnmeter,        |-v-       |-         ww|.w        w| 

I  weary  find  |  worn  she  il  |  waited  th6e  | 
A.— Tetrameter,     \    -  ^        v|-w         «|-  «w|-v       v| 

I  faded  the  I  vSpOrs  th&t  |  seemed  tO  en  |  cump&ss  him  | 

5.  — Pentameter,    |-      ww|      -«         w|-ww|      -«       «|.w«| 

I  life  hath  Its  I  pleasures  bQt  |  fading  are  |  they  &8  the  |  floweret  | 

6.  —  Hexameter, 

|.w         .|      -     w         w        I         -         .  .|       -         w  «|  .  w       w|      .     .V         I 

I  Over  the  I  valley  with  |  speed  like  the  |  wind  &11  the  |  steeds  were  &  |  galloping  | 


SELECTIONS 

FOE 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 


IF  the  dear  faculty  of  sight  should  fail, 
Still  it  may  be  allowed  me  to  remember 
What  visionary  powers  of  eye  and  soul, 
In  youth,  were  mine;  when  stationed  on  the  top 
Of  some  huge  hill,  expectant,  I  beheld 
The  sun  rise  up,  from  distant  climes  returned. 
Darkness  to  chase,  and  sleep,  and  bring  the  day 
His  bounteous  gift." 

I  CAKE  not,  Fortune,  what  you  me  deny; 
You  cannot  rob  me  of  free  Nature's  grace, 
You  cannot  shut  the  windows  of  the  sky. 
Through  which  Aurora  shows  her  brightening  face : 
You  cannot  bar  my  constant  feet  to  trace 
The  woods  and  lawns,  by  living  streams  at  eve ; 
Let  health  my  nerves  and  finer  fibres  brace. 
And  I  their  toys  to  the  great  children  leave ; 
Of  fancy,  reason,  virtue,  naught  can  me  bereave." 

CAN  gold  calm  passion  or  make  reason  shine ? 
Can  we  dig  peace  or  wisdom  from  the  mine? 
Wisdom  to  gold  prefer,  for  'tis  much  less 
To  make  our  fortune  than  our  happiness : 

224 


SELECTIONS.  225 

That  happiness  which  great  ones  often  see, 
With  rage  and  wonder,  in  a  low  degree. 
Themselves  unblessed.    The  poor  are  only  poor; 
But  what  are  they  who  droop  amid  their  store? 
Nothing  is  meaner  than  a  wretch  of  state. 
The  happy  only  are  the  truly  great. 
Peasants  enjoy  like  appetites  with  kings, 
And  those  best  satisfied  with  cheapest  things, 
Could  both  our  Indies  buy  but  one  new  sense. 
Our  envy  would  be  due  to  large  expense." 

PROUD  of  his  well-spread  walks,  he  views  his  trees 
That  meet  (no  barren  interval  between) 
With  pleasure  more  than  even  their  fruits  afford, 
Which,  save  himself  who  trains  them,  none  can  feel; 
These,  therefore,  are  his  own  peculiar  charge ; 
No  meaner  hand  may  discipline  the  shoots. 
None  but  his  steel  approach  them.     What  is  weak. 
Distempered,  or  has  lost  prolific  powers, 
Impaired  by  age,  his  unrelenting  hand 
Dooms  to  the  knife ;  nor  does  he  spare  the  soft 
And  succulent,  that  feeds  its  giant  growth 
But  barren,  at  the  expense  of  neighboring  twigs 
Less  ostentatious,  and  yet  studded  thick 
With  hopeful  gems." 


IN  your  affairs,  my  lord. 
If  ever  I  were  wilful  negligent, 
It  was  my  folly ;  if  industriously 
I  played  the  fool,  it  was  my  negligence, 
Not  weighing  well  the  end ;  if  ever  fearful 
To  do  a  thing,  where  I  the  issue  doubted, 
Whereof  the  execution  did  cry  out 
Against  the  non-performance,  't  was  a  fear 
Which  oft  infects  the  wisest ;  these,  my  lord. 
Are  such  allowed  infirmities,  that  honesty 
Is  never  free  of." 

P 


226  SELECTIONS    FOR 

I  TELL  thee,  then,  whoever,  amidst  the  sons 
Of  reason,  valor,  liberty  and  virtue, 
Displays  distinguished  merit,  is  a  noble 
Of  Nature's  own  creating.     Such  have  risen, 
Sprung  from  the  dust,  or  where  had  been  our  honors? 
And  such,  in  radiant  bauds,  will  rise  again 
In  yon  immortal  city,  that,  when  most 
Depressed  by  fate,  and  near  apparent  ruin, 
Eeturns,  as  with  an  energy  divine. 
On  her  astonished  foes,  and  shakes  them  from  her." 

0  DIVINE  Nature,  how  thyself  thou  blazonest 
In  these  two  princely  boys !    They  are  as  gentle 
As  zephyrs,  blowing  below  the  violet 
Not  wagging  his  sweet  head ;  and  yet  as  rough, 
Their  royal  blood  enchafed,  as  the  rudest  wind, 
That  by  the  top  doth  take  the  mountain  pine, 
And  make  him  stoop  to  the  vale.     'T  is  wonderful 
That  an  invisible  instinct  should  frame  them 
To  royalty  unlearned ;  honor  untaught ; 
Civility  not  seen  from  other ;  valor, 
That  wildly  grows  in  them,  but  yields  a  crop, 
As  if  it  had  been  sowed." 

IF  the  immortal  gods  have  so  decreed 
That  this  affliction  you  should  undergo, 
It  is  your  duty  patiently  to  bear  it ; 
Which  if  you  do,  the  trouble  will  be  lighter. 
When  at  your  home,  you,  I  presume,  were  free ; 
But  since  captivity  is  now  your  lot, 
Submission  would  become  you.    Should  a  master 
Commit  unworthy  actions,  yet  his  slaves 
Must  think  them  worthy  ones." 

GOD  made  the  country,  and  man  made  the  town, 
What  wonder,  then,  that  health  and  virtue  —  gifts 
That  can  alone  make  sweet  the  bitter  draught 


ANALYSIS    AND    PARSING.  227 

That  life  holds  out  to  all  —  should  most  abound, 
And  least  be  threatened,  in  the  fields  and  groves! 
Our  groves  were  planted  to  console  at  noon 
The  pensive  wanderer  in  their  shade.    At  eve, 
The  moon-beam,  sliding  softly  in  between 
The  sleeping  leaves,  is  all  the  light  they  wish  — 
Birds,  warbling,  all  the  music.     We  can  spare 
The  splendor  of  your  lamps ;  they  but  eclipse 
Our  softer  satellite." 


A  SMILING  look  she  had,  a  figure  slight, 
With  cheerful  air  and  step  both  quick  and  light; 
A  strange  and  foreign  look  the  maiden  bore. 
That  suited  the  quaint  Belgian  dress  she  wore ; 
Yet  the  blue  fearless  eyes  in  her  fair  face. 
And  her  soft  voice,  told  her  of  English  race ; 
And  ever,  as  she  flitted  to  and  fro, 
She  sang,  or  murmured  rather,  soft  and  low 
Snatches  of  song." 

SEE  the  sole  bliss  Heaven  could  on  all  bestow  I 
Which  who  but  feels  can  taste,  but  thinks  can  know 
Yet  poor  with  fortune,  and  with  learning  blind. 
The  bad  must  miss,  the  good  untaught  will  find ; 
Where  are  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain, 
Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue,  is  to  gain." 


o>^c 


So  reads  he  Nature,  whom  the  lamp  of  truth 
Illuminates ;  thy  lamp,  mysterious  Word  I 
Which  whoso  sees,  no  longer  wanders  lost, 
But  runs  the  road  of  wisdom.    Thou  hast  built 
With  means,  that  were  not  till  by  thee  employed. 
Worlds,  that  had  never  been,  hadst  thou  in  strength 
Been  less." 


228  •  SELECTIONS    FOR 

MAN,  like  the  generous  vine,  supported  lives ; 
The  strength  he  gains  is  from  the  embrace  he  gives. 
On  their  own  axes  as  the  planets  run, 
Yet  make  at  once  their  circle  round  the  sun ; 
So  two  consistent  motions  acts  the  soul, 
And  one  regards  itself,  and  one  the  whole. 
Thus  God  and  Nature  linked  the  general  frame, 
And  bade  self-love  and  social  be  the  same." 


5j^C 


THUS  Caesar,  god-like,  to  the  pilot  cries :  — 
Superior  to  despair,  the  waves  despise, 
And  the  vain  threat' ning  of  the  angry  skies ; 
Though  gods  deny  thee  yon  Italian  strand. 
Yet  go,  I  charge  thee,  go  at  my  command. 
To  ignorance  alone  ascribe  thy  cares. 
Not  knowing  what  a  freight  thy  vessel  bears. 
Let  floods  and  winds  loud  war  with  cowards  wage, 
Or  waste  upon  themselves  their  empty  rage ; 
One  stronger  in  his  might  remains  thy  friend ; 
Thou  and  thy  barque  on  Caesar's  fate  depend." 


I  DO  not  rise  to  waste  the  night  in  words ; 
Let  that  Plebeian  talk :  it  is  not  my  trade ; 
But  here  I  stand  for  right  —  let  him  show  proofs 
For  Eoman  right :  though  none,  it  seems,  dare  stand 
To  take  their  share  with  me.     Ah,  cluster  there; 
Cling  to  your  master,  judges,  Eomans,  slaves. 
His  charge  is  ftilse :  —  I  dare  him  to  his  proofs. 
You  have  my  answer.     Let  my  actions  speak. 
But  this  I  will  avow,  that  I  have  scorned. 
And  still  do  scorn,  to  hide  my  sense  of  wrong. 
Who  brands  me  on  the  forehead,  breaks  my  sword, 
Or  lays  the  bloody  scourge  upon  my  back, 
Wrongs  me  not  half  so  much  as  he  who  shuts 
The  gates  of  honor  on  me." 


ANALYSIS    AND    PARSING.  229 

THE  daughters  of  the  year, 
Oue  after  one,  through  that  still  garden  passed. 
Each  garlanded  with  her  peculiar  flower 
Danced  into  light,  and  died  into  the  shade ; 
And  each  in  passing  touched  with  some  new  grace 
Or  seemed  to  touch  her,  so  that  day  by  day, 
Like  one  that  never  can  be  wholly  known, 
Her  beauty  grew ;  till  Autumn  brought  an  hour 
For  Eustace,  when  I  heard  his  deep  '  I  will,' 
Breathed  like  the  covenant  of  God,  to  hold 
From  thence  through  all  the  world !  but  I  rose  up 
Full  of  his  bliss,  and  following  her  dark  eyes, 
Felt  earth  as  air  beneath  me." 


>j*:c 


THOUGHT  in  the  mine  may  come  forth  gold  or  dross ; 
When  coined  in  word,  we  know  its  real  worth : 
If  sterling,  store  it  for  thy  future  use ; 
'T  will  buy  thee  benefit,  perhaps  renown. 
Thought,  too,  delivered,  is  the  more  possessed ; 
Teaching  we  learn,  and  giving  we  retain 
The  births  of  intellect ;  when  dumb,  forgot." 


INVIDIOUS  Grave  I  how  dost  thou  rend  in  sunder 
Whom  love  has  knit,  and  sympathy  made  one  I 
A  tie  more  stubborn  far  than  Nature's  band. 
Friendship  I  mysterious  cement  of  the  soul  I 
I  owe  thee  much.     Thou  hast  deserved  from  me 
Far,  far  beyond  what  I  can  ever  pay. 
Oft  have  I  proved  the  labors  of  thy  love, 
And  the  warm  efforts  of  thy  gentle  heart. 
Anxious  to  please.     Oh  I  when  my  friend  and  I 
In  some  thick  wood  have  wandered  heedless  on 
Hid  from  the  vulgar  eye,  and  set  us  down. 
How  often  have  we  thought  of  joys  departed." 
20 


Index. 


'I=®nC 


Absolute  Phrase,  176. 

Active,  a  distinction  of  voice,  not  of 

verbs,  65. 
Adjective,  40-44;    true  difference  be- 
tween the  adjective  and  the  noun, 

41 ;  its  syntax,  136. 
Adjective  I'hrase,  175. 
Adjective  Pronoun,  53;  its  syntax, 

139. 
Adjuncts  to  Predicate,  169. 
Adjuncts  to  Subject,  163. 
Adverb,  85-88 ;  its  syntax,  144. 
Adverbial  Clause,  176. 
Affixes,  99. 

Alphabet,  origin  of  the  name,  12. 
Analysis,  definition  and  division  of 

the  subject,  161. 
Apposition,  124. 
Appositional  Clause,  176. 
Appositional  Phrase,  175. 
Aristotle,  author  of   the  division  of 

letters  into  vowels,  semi-vowels,  and 

consonants,  12. 
Article,  22-24 ;  origin  and  uses  of  a  and 

the,  23 ;  its  syntax,  133. 
Auxiliary  Verbs,  72. 

Brackets,  208. 

Capitals,  179 ;  rules  for  their  use,  213. 
Case  Absolute,  103 ;   how  punctuated, 

188. 
Case  Independent,  103, 188. 
Case,  of  nouns,  36. 
Clause,  101,  163,  176. 
Colon,  194. 


Comma,  180. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  41. 

Complex  Predicates,  169. 

Complex  Sentences,  101,  174. 

Complex  Subjects,  163. 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns,  47. 

Compound  Predicates,  172. 

Compound  Relatives,  50. 

Compound  Sentences,  102, 179. 

Compound  Subjects,  167. 

Coinimund  Tenses,  their  true  char- 
acter, 73. 

Compound  Words,  their  plurals,  33. 

Conditional  Clauses,  how  punctu- 
ated, 183. 

Conjugation,  the  verb  to  be,  74-76; 
the  verb  to  love,  78-84. 

Corrjunction,  88 ;  its  syntax,  149. 

Conjunctional  Clause,  176. 

Consonants,  14. 

Dash,  202. 

Declarative  Sentences,  173. 
Defective  Verbs,  72. 
Degrees  of  Comparison,  41. 
Demonstrative  Pronouns,  53. 
Dentals,  14. 

Depende7it    Clauses,    how    punctu- 
ated, 183. 
Derivation,  of  words,  96. 
Diphthongs,  13. 
Dissyllable,  definition,  15. 
Distribtitive  Pronouns,  53. 

Elocutionary  Pauses,  204. 
Emphatic  Form,  of  the  verb,  83. 
230 


INDEX 


231 


Etymology,  21-100;  origin  of  the 
name,  21;  detiuition  and  division 
of  the  subject,  21. 

Exelamatitrn,  200. 

Figures,  21&-220. 

Foreign  Words,  their  plurals,  33. 

Gender,  of  nouns,  26;  peculiarity  of 
English  in  regard  to  gender,  27. 

Grammar,  definition  and  divisions 
of  the  subject,  9. 

Grammatical  I'redicate,  168. 

Grammatical  Subject,  162. 

Chreek,  prefixes,  98. 

Gutturals,  14. 

Imperative  Sentences,  173. 
Impersonal,  verbs,  71. 
Indefinite  Pronouns,  54. 
Independent  Phrase,  176. 
Infinitive  Mood,  its  syntax,  147. 
Infinitive  Phrase,  175. 
Interjections,  93, 
Intermediate     Expressions,     how 

punctuated,  182. 
Interrogation,  199. 
Interrogative  Pronouns,  51. 
Interrogative  Sentences,  173. 
Irregular,  verbs,  67. 
Is  building,  is  it  correct?  63. 

labials,  14. 

Latin,  prefixes,  97. 

letters,  definition,  11;  divisions,  12. 

Unguals,  14. 

logical  Predicate,  168. 

logical  Subject,  162. 

Member,  of  a  sentence,  102, 176. 
Monosyllable,  definition,  15. 
Mood,  of  verbs,  57. 
Mutes,  14. 

Xominative,  its  relation  to  the  verb, 
103. 

Nouns,  24-40 ;  definition  and  classifica^ 
tion,  25 ;  attributes,  26 ;  gender,  27 ; 
number,  30 ;  person,  35 ;  case,  36. 

Number,  of  nouns,  30 ;  modes  of  form- 
ing the  plurals,  30-34;  irregular 
plurals,  32;  plural  of  compounds 
and  of  foreign  words,  33. 

Numerals,  41. 

Ol^ect  Clause,  176. 


Objective,  governed  by  verb,  112;  by 

preposition,  115. 
Orthography,  11-20. 

Palatals,  14. 

Parenthesis,  207. 

Parenthetical    Expressions,    how 

punctuated,  207. 

Participial  Phrase,  175. 

Participles,  62 ;  true  character  of  the 
past  participle  active,  63 ;  their  syn- 
tax, 141. 

Period,  196. 

Personal  Pronouns,  45. 

Person,  of  nouns,  35. 

Phrase,  101,  163,  175. 

Plural,  of  nouns,  modes  of  forming  it, 
30-34 ;  irregular  plurals,  32 ;  plurals 
of  compounds,  and  of  foreign  words, 
33. 

Polysyllable,  definition,  15. 

Possessive  Case,  of  nouns,  37-39 ;  ori- 
gin and  truecharacter  of  the  English 
possessive,  38 ;  its  syntax,  120. 

Predicate,  101,  168. 

Prefixes,  96. 

Prepositional  Phrase,  175. 

Preposition,  90 ;  its  government  of  the 
objective,  115;  appropriate  use  of, 
117. 

Primitive,  words,  96. 

Progressive  Form,  of  the  verb,  82. 

Pronouns,  44-55;  sense  in  which  the 
pronoun  stands  in  stead  of  the  noun, 
44 ;  syntax,  128 ;  Personal,»45 ;  Rela- 
tive, 48 ;  Adjective,  53. 

Prosody,  belonging  to  Ehetoric  rather 
than  grammar,  10. 

Punctuation,  belonging  properly  to 
Orthography,  11 ;  Kules  of,  175. 

Quotation  Marks,  210. 

Itegular,  verbs,  66. 
Jlelative,  its  syntax,  130. 
Relative    Clause,  170 ;    how    punctu- 
ated, 184. 
Relative  Pronouns,  48. 
Responsive  Pronouns,  51. 

Saxon,  prefixes,  96. 

Semicolon,  190. 

SenU'VOtvels,  14. 

Sentences,  101, 161. 

Sex,  modes  of  distinguishing  it,  28. 


232 


INDEX. 


Shall;  its  use  as  a  part  of  the  future 
tense,  61 ;  its  true  force  as  an  aux- 
iliary, 73;  difference  between  shall 
and  will,  76. 

Simple  I*redicates,  168, 

Simple  Sentences,  101, 174. 

Simple  Subjects,  163. 

Spelling,  15 ;  Rules  of,  16-20. 

Strong  Conjugation,  66, 

Sulfject,  of  a  sentence,  101, 164. 

Subject  Clause,  176, 

Subject  Phrase,  175. 

Subjunctive  mood,  its  uses,  77. 

Syllables,  definition,  15. 

Syntax,  101-162, 

Tense,  of  verbs,  58. 

That,  its  different  uses,  49,  95  ;  its  syn- 
tax, 129, 

Ifie  more,  the  less,  origin  of  the  con- 
struction, 134, 

To,  sign  of  the  infinitive,  not  to  be  sep- 
arated by  intervening  words,  147. 


2V>  be,  case  of  the  noun  after  it,  122. 
Transitive,  verbs,  64. 
Triphthongs,  13. 
Trisyllable,  definition,  15. 


Verbs,  55-84 ;  true  ground  of  its  defini- 
tion, 85;  attributes,  56-64;  voice, 
56;  classes,  64-74;  conjugafion,  74- 
84 ;  agreement  with  its  nominative, 
106;  government  of  the  objective, 
112, 

Versification,  221-223. 

Vowels,  13. 

Webster,  on  doubling  the  final  I,  19. 
What,  not  a  compound  relative,  48, 
Worcester,  on  doubling  the  final  I,  19, 
Words,  definition  of,  15;  classification 
of,  21;  derivation,  96;  used  as  dif- 
ferent parts  of  speech,  94, 
Worth,  is  it  a  preposition?  116. 


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